FlIBRARY OF CONGRESS.? 



J [SMITHSOinAN PEPOSIT.] | 



J UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.^ 






'^■^.^^^^y J^-e-^..-^-<-^ '-/ 






\L1 dAli-'D 



'.V> . "% 



AMERICAN TEXT BOOK 

OF PRACTICAL AND 8CIF.STIFIC 

AGRICULTURE, 



INTENDED FOR THE USE OP 



COLLEGES, SCHOOLS, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS; 



AS WELL A8 FOB 



THE PRACTICAL FARMER 



ANALYSES BY THE MOST EMINENT CHEMISTS. 



BY CHAHLES FOX, 



•EXIOB KDITOR OF THE "FARMER'S COMPANION, AND HORTICCT.TnRAL GAZETTE; 

LECTUKF.R ON AGRICDLTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; 

COR. MEM. OF THE N. Y. LYCEUM OF NAT. HIST.; 

AND OP THE PHILADELPHIA AND CLEVELAND ACADEMIES OF SCIKNCFS; 

MEMDER OF U. S. AQRICUL. 80CY., &C. 

\ 



\ 



DETROIT: 

PUBLISHED BY ELWOOD AND COMPANY. 
1854. 



Ebtered according to Act of Congress In the year 193-1, bj 

S. D. Elwood & CoMPiXV, 

In tha Cterk'g Office for the Dutrict oi Michigan. 



6 



^f^<\ 



< 



DETROIT: 
E. A. Walks, Printer, Advertiser Steftm Presses. 



TO 

DR. SILAS H. DOUGLASS; 

PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, 4C., IX THE 

UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN; 

TO WHOSE EXERTIONS AND ENERGY, THE 

ESTABLISHMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LECTURES 

IN THAT INSTITUTION, 

IS, 

TO A GREAT EXTENT, DUE. 

AND WHO, FROM AN EARLY DAY, HAS EARNESTLY 

AND PERSEVERINGLY LABORED IN THE CAUSE OF SCIENCE IN 

THIS state: 
THIS VOLUME 
IS DEDICATED BY HIS MOST SINCERE AND 
OBLIGED FRIEND 

THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE. 



The following work is strictly what it professes to be — 
A Text Book. It is not intended so much to teach the Sci- 
ence and Art of Agriculture, as to enable the Teacher to teach. 
In its character it is suggestive^ and makes no pretensions to be 
a perfect Encyclopoedia of the subject. At the same time it is 
believed that there is no point — so far as the work professes to 
go — on w^hich it is important that the Teacher should enlarge, 
or the student learn, to which they will not find their attention 
directed. Nor will the experienced Farmer, or the general rea- 
der fail to be interested. Practice and science are brought to- 
gether, and compelled to assist each other; instead of being un- 
naturally divorced, as, unhappily, they have too long been in 
this department of knowledge. 

This little work is the offspring of a sorely felt necessity. A 
year since, the Author was unexpectedly called upon to deliver 
a course of lectures on Agriculture, before the newly organized 
" Scientific Department" of the University of Michigan. He 
had for some years studied the subject, both practically and 
theoretically, and collected a valuable library in connection with 
it. But this he had done merely for his own gratification, with- 
out any direct object in view, and certainly with no intention of 
ever becoming a teacher of Agriculture. A sense of duty to 
the public would not allow him to refuse the invitation ; and 



VI. PREFACE. 

painfully conscious of his deficiencies, lie assumed the ofiice, de- 
termined to do the best I'.e could. Upon the very threshold, 
however, he met with an unexpected difficulty. He could find 
no book, published either in America or Europe, adapted for a 
collegiate class, many of whom were practical and middle-ag'ed 
farmers, and some to whom the very terms of Science were un- 
known. Professors Johnston, Norton, and Nash have each pub- 
lished elementary works, most excellent so far as they go ; but 
they are confined almost entirely to the chemical portion of the 
subject, and "Practical Agriculture in its connection with Sci- 
ence" was the topic demanded. There are other books again, 
but deficient on the other side, — consisting merely of directions 
how to cultivate the land, — being chiefly compilations, and ma- 
king no pretensions to a higher or scholastic character ; so that 
the Author was obliged to prepare and write his entire course 
of lectures, and the students lost much from the want of some 
Avork which they might study in private, or refer to from time 
to time. This loss was chiefly felt in regard to analyses, figures 
and scientific words. It is quite impossible that a student can 
understand the one, or recollect the other by merely hearing 
them ; and yet if these portions are lost, much of the value of 
the succeeding information is lost likewise. 

Within the few last years, the study of Agriculture in the 
United States, has assumed a new form. It is beginning to be 
introduced, not only into Colleges, but also into Primary Schools ; 
and in conversing with other gentlemen, the Author found that 
this want was as sensibly deplored by others, as it had been by 
himself. He therefore undertook to wi-ite out the substance of 
his lectures. Neither his more important engagements, nor his 



PRKFACB. VU. 

healtli permitted him to anticipate more. But having made 
a beginning, he found the subject constantly enlarging, and ho 
has, to the best of his ability, collected and arranged a synopsis 
of all that is known, — so far as he could ascertain it — of the the- 
oretical and practical truths and principles of Agriculture, up to 
the present moment. The analyses which ai-e given, are, it is 
believed, the very latest that have been made, and, perhaps 
without exception, are worthy of all credit in the present posi- 
tion of the Science. The more stiictly technical portion is either 
the result of the Author's own experience and experiments, or 
it is compiled from the most ti-ustworthy sources adapted to tho 
present position and necessities of the American Famer. 

The only novelty, which can be claimed as such, is the ar- 
rangement, each subject being complete within itself. Much 
more might have been introduced, and one of the chief difficul- 
ties that have been experienced has been compressing the mat- 
ter, — the omitting of all which did not appear to be absolutely 
necessary for the object in view, and the using as few words as 
possible. 

It was essential that the book should be of moderate size, and 
cheap — this the Publisher insisted upon as a sine qua no7i, — and 
consequently much that might have been inserted has been left 
out. Thus, it is taken for granted that the Teacher or the Stu- 
dent is already familiar with Botany, and the elements of Ag- 
ricultural Chemistry. Had these topics likewise been intro- 
duced further than they have been, they would have swelled 
the work far beyond the requisite size. For the boundaries of 
agricultural knowledge are like those of the horizon, ever enlarg- 
ing as we travel on, till they embrace almost the entire circle of 



Vni. PREFACE. 

the sciences and Arts. So vast are the subjects, that a writer 
ittempting to include the whole, would find that a library, not a 
volume, would be the result of his labors. Besides, with the 
excellent elementary works already mentioned, and Prof. Gray's 
Botanical Text-book, repetition could not have been avoided, and 
this too, has been most scrupulously abstained from, as regards 
works in general circulation among us. So again, the topics 
treated upon in the early chapters are presented merely in out- 
line. Agricultural Meteorology — though essentially a most inte- 
resting and important application of Science, — is yet in its ear- 
liest infancy ; and the materials do not exist for accurate or ex- 
tended instruction ; while the Natural History of Plants, the Air, 
Water, &c., belong rather to the department of the Chemist and 
the Vegetable Physiologist, than to the practical Agriculturist. 
Enough only is written on these subjects to serve as an intro- 
duction to what follows. 

In many instances, and always in the Analyses, the authority 
quoted is mentioned, chiefly in order that the Teacher may be 
able to refer directly to the original, where he will usually meet 
■with a more complete elucidation of the subject than could be 
admitted into these pages. 

It will be observed that the work is printed in type of three 
sizes. Those portions which are considered as peculiarly im- 
portant, or as being capable of comprehension by students of all 
ages, are printed in the largest type ; that which is abstruse is 
in a second sized ; and that which peculiarly interests the prac- 
tical farmer is in the smallest type. The Chaptei-s are likewise 
so arranged as to permit the teacher to select such subjects as he 
chooses. 



PREFACE. XX. 

No one can attempt to teach an irregular science, or a "sci- 
entific art'' sucli as Agriculture is rapidly becoming, without 
discovering liow much he must depend for explanation and il- 
lustration on his own resources. The strict sciences, such as 
mathematics, may be entirely taught by books ; but in agricul- 
ture there is still so much that is uncertain, and so many scien- 
ces and arts are combined within it, that — without taking into 
consideration the discoveries that are almost daily made — a life- 
time, laboriously devoted to the subject could scarcely render 
one individual master of the whole. It is hoped, therefore, that 
tlie Teacher who may use this book will enlarge upon the vari- 
ous subjects, and explain that which is difficult — in one woi'd, 
that he will consider it as the mariner does his chart, as a di- 
rector of his course, but a director from which he is at liberty 
to differ should his superior experience and knowledge induce 
him to do so. 

The Author has no desire to assume to himself more credit 
than is due, nor to make excuses which are not strictly true. 
But constantly and seriously occupied in vaiious other duties; 
for a length of time at a distance from the Press ; and com- 
pelled to search for materials in a large number of books — con- 
siderably over one hundred volumes having been consulted and 
compared — he has not only found the labor of compiling those 
sheets a very arduous one, but is well aware, that had he been 
able to devote more time to the object he could have rendered 
them more truly worthy of the acceptance of the public. Should 
another Edition be called for, many emendations will probably 
be male. 

The limits of this volume forbid the subject of Domestic 



X. PREFACE. 

Animals, and some other topics being touched upon. For an- 
other work, a large amount of materials is on hand, and 
should life and health be spared, the writer may, perhaps, 
include them in another volume. That, however, must depend 
upon the success with which this meets. 

University^ Ann Arbor, Mich., \ 
Feb. 14, 1854. J 



CHAPTER I. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

1. The ■vrord Agriculture is derived from two Latin word.*, 
Ager, a Field, and Cuxtura, Cultivating or Tilling. It tLero- 
fore means, strictly, The working of th.e soil; but is now nsed 
to describe every process connected with Farming. 

2. Agriculture may be divided into (a,) growing of grains ; 
c£ edible plants ; of oil lx»ring plants ; of vegetables used in 
dying, &c ; (b,) of grasses ; (c,) breeding of stock ; (d,) fas- 
tening of stock ; (e,) producing wool ; (/,) manufacture of chech* 
and butter; (g,) cultivation of fruit; (h,) of vegetables p.ihI 
flowers; (iy) viticulture, (or the culture of the grapevine,) arwl 
wine making; (J,) Planting, or the production of cotton, rk-f, 
migar, tobacco, &c And, in Europe, to the above are a<.lded, 
(k,) forest matters; (I,) manufacture of beet sugar; (m,) tlw 
production of silk ; and of some other minor article. 

3. Any of these processes may bo pursued by it«elf ; thougli, 
in most instances, it is found profitable to include mOTe than oi;*; 
a£ tho above divisions on the same farm. In this r^poct, agrv- 
culture differs from manufactuK*; tho latter becwming meet; 
fwofitable as the division of labor becomes more simple. 

4. Agriculture ie an Art, whicli, to be truly understood, 
re<juire8 the study of many Sciekceb. 

Aei is the application of knowledge to practical pnrpoees. /Scictkw i« 
a kuowl«dg€ of the principles of Art. If the knowledge bo merclj n«- 
1 



S AGRICCLTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

oumulited experience, it« application is empirical art; but if it be expe- 
rtauce rtasoneJ upon «n(i brought under general principles, it assuniei 
a higher character, and becomes a scientific art, 

5. The following are usually considered tte Sciences which 
setQ naturally included in the Art of Agriculture : — I. Mathe- 
matical Science: (a,) arithmetic; (b,) algebra; ('c J geometry ; 
(d,) mechanics ; (e,) surveying ; (/,) levelling ; ((/,) stereome- 
lay, (the measuring of solid bodies^) (h,) linear drawing, II. 
Physical and Natural Sciences: (a,) physics; (b^) meteor- 
ology ; (c,) mineral chemistry ; (d^) mineralogy ; (e,) geology ; 
(fy) botany. III. Technological Sciences: (a^) organic chem- 
istry ; (b,) scientific agriculture ; (c,) arboriculture ; (d,) sylvi- 
ctilture ; (e,) vegetable and animal physiolog}' ; (f) veterinary 
jfft; (g,) zoology; (h,) equitation. IV. JVoological Sciences: 
(a^) rural architecture ; (b,) forest economy ; (c,) book-keeping ; 
(d,J rural economy ; (e,) rural law. Each of these, again, is 
divisible into several sub-divisions ; and the list may be Ktill 
further added to with practical advantage. 

6" V\^hile a knowledge of all these sciences is necessary to tli« 
thoroughly educated farmer, only a part of them is included in 
wiiat is commonly termed practical agriculture. Of this latter 
portion, meteorology, chemistry, geology, mineralogy and botany, 
we usually taught by themselves ; leaving field-work, arboricul- 
ture, animal physiology, zoology, and veterinary art in a class 
by themselves. To these last, the followitig pages will be de- 
voted. It must, however, be observed, that so closely are the 
majority of these sciences interwoven in forming the agricultural 
art, that it is impossible entirely to disconnect the one from the 
other. This is especially the case with chemistry and botany : 
a knowledge of the principles of which must be considered as 
absolutely essential, and which, together with certain depart- 
moats of geology, must be frequently referred to. 

7. The farraer is a manufacturer. His art converts the soil and air 
icito grain, meat, wool, oil, and other sub&tanccs. Ho creates nothing : 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK:. t 

be only causes a change of arr«ngement of matorials already eiiiting; 
■which materials ar« goT«rned by known and fixed laws. "What the fa»- 
mer, therefore, requires, is an intimate acquaintance with these materiali" 
■id with the natural laws to which they are subject. The earth and air 
are composed of a certain number of simple elements. But in this primi- 
tive shape, they are unfit for the support of animal life. Yet thay vill 
hocome either weeds or useful plants, according to the muda in which 
they are used. Again, if they become the latter, the quality produced 
Qu a given area will be large or small according to known and fixed 
rtiles ; and if domestic animals are reared, these will be largo or •™ajt 
haalthy or unhealthy, according to the same certain and unalterabto 
laws. It depends, therefore, rpon the knowledge which the practical 
farmer has of these laws, and the use he makes of this knowledge, 
■whether he receives the largest possible return for his Itfbor or noV 

8. Tlie object of the pr<actical fanner is to raise from a grw-n 
area of land the largest quantity of the most profitable prodtaee 
at the least cost; and not only to avoid impoverishing the soil, 
but to render it gradually more productive. A knowledge of 
the above named sciences ■will enable him to do this ; and thns 
he is repaid pecuniarily for the labor of his mind, as the worfl- 
man is repaid for the labor of his body. 

10. The earliest effort in Europe for the establishment of an Agn- 
onltural School, was made by M. L'Abbe Rosier in 1775; but, owing 
to the neglect of the government, it failed to go into operation. lu 1799, 
Fellenberg, of Switzerland, established the Hofwyl School, ■which ap- 
pears to have been the first institution of the kind. In 1818 — 1822, M. 
do Dorasbasle commenced a Model Farm, of 375 acres, in connection 
■with a place of education, at Rovillo, in France* In 1827, the Royal 
Agi'onomic Institution of Grignon, near Paris, was commenced, by the 
government. It owns a farm of 1,250 acres, and receives yearly a grant 
of about $12,000. In Germany, in 1806, the celebrated Dr. A. D. Thaer 
opened an Agricultural Academy at Moegelin, in Prussia, to educate 
superintendents for large estates. In 1845, the Royal Agricultural 
College of Cirencester, England, was chartered. Such inatitutiouB an 
now abundant in every part of Europe. 

11. Dr. E. Hitchcock, in the " Report of Coramissionera to the Ooro- 
monwealth of Massachusetts concerning an Agricultural School, /amta»y, 
1831," gives the following list of Agricultural Educational Establiehr 
monts in Europe : 



AOBICULTTJRAL TEXT-BOOK. 



SCHOOLS. 



2 -2 









Total 



la England, 

In Ireland, 

In Scotland, • • 

In France, 

In Italy, - • 

In Belgium, 

In Prussia, - • . 

In Austria. 

In Wurtemberg, • 

In Bavaria, 

In Saiony, - • - 

In Brunswick 

Iq Mechlenburg Schwerin, 

la Schleswig Holstein, 

In Anhault, 

In Duchy of Hesse, - 

In Duchy of Weimar, • 

In Duchy of Nassau, 

In the Electorate of Hesse, 

lu Duchy of Baden, 

lo Duchy of Sase Meicingeo, 

In Russia, - . - 

Total, 



25 



1 



5 

63 

3 

75 

2? 

9 
32 
33 

7 
35 

5 

2 

I 

4 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
6S 



22 54 214 4S 14 352 



12. Besides these, tbero are Colleges deToted to instruction in V«te- 
rioary Art, the most important of which are, the Imperial School at 
Alfort, in France, and the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, iu 
London. In these institutions, a very complete education is afFoniod 
Veterinary Colleges were first organized in France and Germany, in ths 
Ijegiuning of the eighteenth century ; and a great many valuable worbs 
from the pens of eminent practitioners hare appeared on this eubjatk 
The first English College owes its origin, in 1792, to a Frenchman of ih« 
Miine of Saint BeL In France, Veterinary Surgeons hold a high pro- 
fessional and social position, and many of them aie members of ths 
Order of the Legion of Honor. These schools, as well as the agricultural, 
receive annually liberal grants of money from government One point of 
great importance is, that a Hospital for diseased animals is connected 
\rith each College, so that not only have the students an opportunity of 
itudying living pathology ; but, on the appearance of an endemic, tliejw 
18 great probability of tha cauaa oud cure being ascertained speedily. 



AGRICOLTUIUL TEXT-BOOK. 5 

13. Agncultnral education is necessarily divided into the theoretieai 
and th« practical — or the Science of Agriculture and the Art of Agricnl- 
ture. The former involving the reasons of action, is properly learnt firel ; 
and may be imparted without any connection with a farm ; the second, 
iofiludirg, as it does, manual dexterity, comparison, and experiment, 
nrast necessarily ba taught in the field. Or the two may be taugh* 
■multaneously. There appear, however, in many cases, to be serioos 
reasons against the latter course. A student of law or medicine firs* 
corapletes his theoretical education, and then proceeds to practice ; and 
this seems to be the most rational course in agricultural education alao. 
lu the higher European Colleges, lectures are given in the field, after a 
large amount of information has been acquired ; but, it is believed, that 
the students are not required to labor. There ia certainly no efficiersi 
reason why a student of agriculture must necessarily spend a given poj- 
tion of his time in physical toil ; the more especially, as the manzial 
operations of a farm are intrinsically simple, are easily learned, and 
require rather the exercise of the muscles than of the mind. A museum of 
rural objects, including models of implements, with likenesses of the besl 
Btock ; and a hospital for diseased animals ; connected with occasional 
visits to the best farms in the neighborhood, and to agricultural fain, 
will supply everything that is requisite for the full education of a your^ 
man brought up on a farm ; the practical skill being acquired when 1m 
returns home, to make agriculture the serious occupatian of his life. 



CHAPTER II. 



PI^NTS.— THE AIR.— WATER. 

14. Plants are formed by a re-arrangement of simple sub- 
stances, (or elements,) already existing in (a,) tbe air, (b,) the 
water, and (c,) tbe soiL Animals are formed by a re-arrange- 
ment of tbese plants, of wat^r, and of air. Tbese changes are 
not simply mechanical, but chemical ; and are under the direc- 
tion of a power called Life, of which very Httle is yet known. 
Heat, light, electricity, the wind, the rain, and the sun, have alao 
a powerful influence over vegetable and animal existence. 

15. Wherever the proper elements and circumstances unite, 
Hhere wiU vegetable life exist. 

16. While all plants are composed of a certain quantity of 
different substances, the various orders of plants demand either 
a different proportion of the elements; or one requires an 
element which is not requisite to the existence of another plant. 
Thus, one species of jrJants grows in earth containing a large pro- 
portion of potash or soda, as wormwood (artemisia) and aspara- 
gus ; whUe another requires Httle or no potash, as Indian coru. 
One grows in water, without any connection with the soil ; while 
another grows in the air like the wind-plant of Florida ; or the 
mistletoe of Europe, forcing its radicles into the sapwood of 
another tree. 

17. While plants grow naturally where they find the ele- 
ments, and other circumstances necessary for their formation ; 



AGRICULTURAL TEST-BOOK. 7 

they are also abundant or rare, according to the proportionate 
existence of these circumstances. 

18. A plant not indigenous to a given locality, will grow antl 
flourish, if transplanted, in exact proportion as it finds the ma- 
terials and circumstances in its new locality the same as in its 
native one. 

1 9. These facts are the ground-work of Agriculture as an in- 
telligent art 

20. Comparatively few plants exist which are useful to man, 
and these, in their wild state, are naturally confined to narrow 
bounds. The business of the Farmer is, therefore, to cause such 
plants as he requires, to grow where he wishes them ; and not 
CBoIy to grow, but by artificial adaptation of circumstances to 
compel them to yield so abundantly that their intrinsic valite 
is greater than that of the labor bestowed upon them. 

21. A striking examj^le of this principle may be given in th* 
growth of tbe Pine Apple in England. This is a plant requir- 
ing the heat of a long tropical summer in order that it may 
perfect its fruit. Until steamships plied between the West Ii>- 
die3 and Great Britain, this fruit could not be carried to tlie 
latter country, without rotting. But so delicious is the flavor, 
that the English were not willing to be deprived of it. They 
consequently formed, by means of glass-houses and furnaces, a 
tropical atmosphere : they imitated the rich organic soil in whicli 
this plant is found to flourish ; they supplied the moisture neee»- 
tar}' at certain periods of growth ; and not only brought ths 
fruit to perfection, but greatly improved it in size and flavor. 

22. The principles may therefore be laid down, (a,) " that 
out of nothing, nothing is made;" if it is desired to grow a 
given plant in abundance, all the elements that enter into that 
plant must be supplied in abundance, (b,) all other circumstar>- 
ees requisite to its perfection in its native state must also be fu»- 
nished ; (c,) that j)lants cannot be grown where these requisit<?» 
are deficient ; (d,) but that it is in the power of the Farmer, b^ 



8 AGEICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

the acquisition of knowledge and by intelligent labor, so to mo- 
dify existing circumstances as to cause a plant to grow profitably 
where naturally it could not do so. 

23. On those simple principles, depends the utility of pk»w- 
ing, harrowing, manuring, irrigation, and the other mechanical 
ji^ocosses of cultivation. 

24. In other words, the art of Agriculture, when confined to 
growing plants, is simply adapting the soil, and surrounding ci»- 
(inmtances to the natural demands of tho plant; each plant 
Tflaying somewhat from another, in its requirements. 

25. In ordor to do this, it is necessary to understand, (a^) tha 
materials which aro or can be supphed by air, water, and soil ; 
(for in this connection, manure is merely a modification of tha 
•oil,) (b,) the materials which enter into the composition of eiich 
plant; and (c^) the incidental changes, which meteorology and 
ciiemistiy may produce. 

26. The Aib or Atmosphere. — According to M. Regnault, 
1 00 cubic inches of atmospheric air, deprived of aqueous vapor 
aaid carbonic acid, weigh 30.82926 grains. At 62 '^ Fahr. air 
is 810 times hghter than water, and 11,000 times Hghter than 
mercury. 

The chemical composition of air is, (Dumas and Boussm- 
gaxdt) : — 

Air by Weight. Air by Vol-ams. 

mS^n, } Mechanically combined, | ^3-10 20.90 

100.00 100.00 

— Besides those constituents, the atmosphere always contains a 
variable quantity of watery vapor and carbonic acid gas, besides 
other gasses and vaporous bodies which are observed to enter 
into it. The yoimger Saussure has ascertained that the mean 
proportion of carbonic acid is 4.9 volumes in 10,000 volumes of 
air; or almost exactly 1 in 2,000 volumes; but it varies from 
6.2 as a maximum to 3.7 as a minimum, in 10,000 volumes. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 9 

Its proportion near tho surface of the eartb, is greater in sum- 
mer tlian in winter, and during night than during day. It is 
also more abundant on the summits of high mountains than in 
tlie plains. 

27. CoMPOsmoK op Dry Am by Volume. — 

Nitrogen, 7912 

Oxygen, 2080 

Carbonic acid, 4 

Carburetted hydrogen, . . . . 4. 

Ammonia, (3 vols, of hydrogen with one of 

nitrogen,) ------ varies 

Ozone, " 

Organic matter, and salts, - - - - « 
2S. Prof. Horsford, in experiments made in Boston, Mass., in 
1849, (Am. Assoc, of Science,) found the quantity of ammonia 
in the air greatly to exceed that detected by Fresenius, at Wies- 
baden. Liebig, at Giessen, found it in rain-water and snow ; and 
eetimates that one pound of rain-water contains a quarter of a 
grain of ammonia. * 

" A field of 26,910 square feet must receive annually upwards of 88 Iba. 
o£ ammonia ; or 71 lbs. of nitrogen ; for by the observations of Scliub- 
ler, about 770,000 lbs. of rain falls over this surface in four months, and 
consequently the annual fall must be 2,316,000 Iba." — Liebig, Agritad, 
Chemiatry, 

Liebig assumes, and justly, that such salts as are found in rain 
water must have been held in suspension in the air, and washed 
out by the shower. 

29. M. Ban-all, of Paris, has lately examined the composition 

•The following: table exhibits the results of several detertninationa by Prof. Hof»- 
fivd, at Boston, Masg., of the ralatira quaatitiei of ammonia found in rain and snow- 
water. 

AMMOFIA ni RiW A.TD MKLTKD 850W IS CHE CUBIC METRE. 



1841>— Dec'r 22, in rain. 


1.56 grains. 


1850— March 18, in snow. 


1.49 graine 


" 29, in snow, 


2.63 '• 


" 22-3, in snow, 


0.9G " 


185ft— April 4, in rain, 


0.21 " 


July 16, iu rain. 


1.29 " 


" 4, iu SDOTT, 


0.72 " 







Annual of Scientific Diicov. 1851, p 234. 



10 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

of rain water ; and from these examinations we find tliat if we 
take the annual depth of rain to be about 24 inches, this quan- 
tity conveys to every acre of land the following substances > — 

Nitrogen, 45^ ibs. 

Nitricaeid, 103 " 

Ammonia, . - . . . 19^ « 

Chlorine, 12^ " 

Lime, 35 " 

Magnesia, - - - - - 11" 

227 ft»s. 

30. Thence it appears that the quantity of ammonia held in 
the air varies according to the locality ; and, probably, other ci»- 
eaimstances. 

31. Horsford, in continuing the experiments above referred 
to, found that at Boston, in the summer, when vegetable and 
animal decay is most rapid, the quantity of ammonia in the air 
16 at a maximum, and afterwards decreases regularly until the 
winter season, when it is at a minimum. The following table 
shows the amount of thirteen difierent analyses : — 

_ Ammonia in 1,000,000 

■^'''** parts, bj weight of air. 

1. July 3, 42.9995 

2. July 9, 46.1246 

3. July 9, 47.6308 

4. September 1 to 20, - - - - 29.7457 

5. October 11, 28.2396 

6. October 14, 25.7919 

1. October 30, 13.9315 

8. November 6, 8.0953 

9. November 18, 12 and 13, - - 8.0953 

10. November 14, 15 and 16, - - - 4.7066 

11. November 17 to December 5, - - 6.1328 

12. December 20 and 21, - - - - 6.9885 

13. December 29, ... - 1.2171 

Annual of Scient. Disc. 1850, j9. 221. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 11 

Liebig (Agri. Chem.) observes " tbat the ammonia contain- 
ed in rain and snow water possesses an offensive smell of per- 
spiration and animal excrements, — a fact which leaves no doubt 
r(«pecting its origin." These experiments have been repeated 
in France, Germany, America, and England with the same re- 
sults. It is probable that in the neighborhood of large cities, 
and in densely peopled countries, the air contains a much larger 
proportion of this valuable alkali, than in the wild and thinly 
settled districts. Some curious agricultural and pathological 
phenomena may be explained by these facts ; but the subj^ect 
still requires more extended and minute examination. 

32. Henry and Chevallier have detected acetic acid and 
probably hippuric acid in the atmosphere. Horsford supposes, 
as the result of his experiments, that the organic effluvia in the 
air are of acid character. 

33. Ozone, also, appears to vary in quantity. 

Ozone is believed to be a form of oxygen, and is produced when elec- 
tric sparks are taken through perfectly dry oxygen. It is formed in tb« 
air during thunder storms. Air impregnated with it acts very much aa 
if a trace of chloiine gas were present, which ozone appears to resembk. 
Little is yet known of it, but it probably has some connection with 
health and epidemic illness ; and is suspected to act on plants by efifec*- 
ing their growth. 

34. Vaughan (Am. Assoc, of Science,) states that by means 
of feeble currents of electricity, the amount of carbonic acid 
which water and moist surfaces continually absorb from the air, 
is decomposed, and serv'es to supply the principal part of the 
humus of the soil. 

35. Althougli, they have not been detected, there can be oo 
doubt that the Sporules (seeds) of minute Cry])togamic plants, 
such as Mould, Bust, d-c, are generally floating in the air, 
ready to take root wherever they find proper conditions, Th« 
atmosphere is also full of Animalcules and infusorial forms. 

36. Dr. Smith (Froc. of British Assoc.) in experiments on 



1 2 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

tlie air of towns, detected sulphuric acid, cMorine, and a sub- 
stance resemLling impure albumen.* In a warm atmosphere tlie 
albuminous matter very soon putrifies, and emits disagreeable 
odors. By oxidation, this substance gives rise to carbonic acid, 
ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, and probably to other gasses. 
37. Mulder found free muriatic acid in the rain water of Anr>- 
aterdam, which he ascribes to the decomposition of the chloridie 



• This substance, which hns been noticed in rain and snow water by several Chem- 
ists, has recently been carefully esamined by Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Massachuseit*. 
(Proc. of Am. Assoc, of Science, 1850, B. pp. 207-212 J It has been named Pyrrhin. 
Obtained from carefully filtered solutions, it appears as fl brown yellow adhesive sub- 
ttance, having a strong odcr of perspired matter, generally containing the remains of 
aoimalcula, spores of fungi, and atmospheric dust. After its solution has been freed 
from ammoniacal salts, the changes following in its fermentation produce ammonia. 
Dr. Hayes is inclined to attribute to this substance, a powerful influence over vegela- 
Uon. When fertile soil is undergoing fermentation, the vapors, by condensation, af- 
ford a substance much like Pyrrhin ; but the state of admixture here renders it mow 
compound than when it is obtained from the atmosphere through the aid of falling 
rain. To the falling of this substance from the air. Dr. H. attributes the remarkablB 
growth of vegetation observed in New England and other places, when heav^ nun 
tacceeds a long continued period of dry weather in siimmer. " The more fertile a 
soil, either naturally or as resulting from judicious cultivation, the more the quantily 
of matter, having the character of a ferment, we olwaya find in our analysis." 

The following passage bearing on this subject appears in Silliman'a Ant. JottrtuU 
<f Science and Arts, for SepUmier, 1853, page 273; — "In continuation of his long 
researehcB on the composition of arable soUs, 51. Verdeil and M. Eissler have recog- 
nized in the aqueous extracts of these boHb, tlie constant presence of a substance UlH 
wgar ; and also a large proportion of mineral substances, little soluble or even insoJ- 
Bble in water. Thus in 100 parts of aqueous extract, they found 49 of organic matter 
■Qd 54 of inorganic, consisting ot sulphate, carbonate, and phosphate of lime, oxyde 
of iron, alumine, magnesia, all insoluble in water (or scarcely soluble) ; and as ths 
presence of carbonic acid alone is not sufficient to explain the presence of these sub- 
itances in the aqueous extract, MM. VerdeU and Rissler have sought for the cause of 
this solubility, and concluded that it is duo to the saccharine ingredients, for only a 
nery little water is required along with this sugar to dissolve large quantities of insoV- 
nble salts. They have recognized again the fact that nitrogen which enters into tbs 
composition of humus is found in the condition of an ammoniacal salt, and not in 
Qiat of an organic substance ; for they have collected the whole under the form of 
ammonia in boiling the concentrated extract with milk of lime." 

"We refer to this not as yet proving anything certain, but as a subject well worthy of 
more investigation. There are many unexplained phenomena connected with vege- 
tation which may receive elucidation if these facts prove to be correct. The rapid 
growth and change of color of plants after a thunder storm in summer has long beea 
noticed by the writer, and probably by most persons living in the country. 



AGRICULTiniAi TEXT-BOOK. 1 3 

oi maoTiesiuiQ contained in the waters of the lake oi Haarlem, 
by the action of the sun's rays. 

38. The quantity of water in the atmosphere varies consider- 
ably, at different times and in different places. It is, besidees 
dependent on the temperature of the air and of the water evap- 
orating from the earth's surface. The proportion of aqueoos 
Tspor has been determined by Verver, for the Netherlands. In 
1000 volumes of air, he found the minimum 6.8 ; the maximum 
10.18. The average of fifty observations during May, August, 
and September was 8.47. From an early hour in the morning 
to 10 o'clock, A. M. it was 7.97 — from 10 to 2 o'clock, P. M, 
8,a8 ; and from 2 o'clock tiE the evening, 8.85 (Mulder.) 

The atmosphere in New England is believed to be much 
drier than that of Germany. At a meeting of the Boston Nat- 
ural History Society, 1852, this difi'orence was discussed. In 
New England the dew point is several degrees lower. Various 
differences are noticed by foreign artizans in the processes of 
their different callings, attributable to this dryness of the aii. 
The climate of New England is regarded as more nearly resen> 
bling that of the liigh Alps than that of any other part of Eu- 
rope. Missouri, on the contrary, appears to have a stiU wetter 
atmosphera At the winter season of the year the air of New 
England is so nearly anhydrous, (free from moisture,) that siuih 
articles as raw hides dry in a temperature just below fireeziing, 
without being frozen. (Annual of ScierU. Discov^ 1853.^ 

39. All these constituents of the atmosphere have an impop- 
taat influence upon the character and luxuriance of vegotatioik. 
Of the whole, however, carbonic acid and water are the moi^ 
important Carbon, and the elements of water form tlie prin- 
df lo constituents of vegetables ; the quantity of the substauceB 
which do not possess this compositon being in a very small pro- 
portion. 

40. The leaves and other groen parts of a jJant expoeed to 



14 AGRICULTURAL TSXT-BOOK. 

Uie ligtt, absorb carbonic acid, decompose it, retain the carbon, 
aad emit an equal volume of oxygon. 

Plants thus improve the air by the removal of carbonic acid and by 
by the renewal of oxygen, which is immediately applied to the use of 
man and animals. The horizontal currents of the atmosphere bring ■with 
them as much as they carry away, and the interchange of air between 
the upper and lower strata, which their difference of temperature causes, 
is extremely trifling when compared with the hoiizontal movements of 
the winds. Thus vegetable culture heightens the healthy state of a 
country ; and a previously healthy country would be rendered quite un- 
inhabitable by the cessation of all cultivation. 

47. But in the dark, or during tbo night, the reverse action 
takes place. Then green plants emit carbonic acid and absorb 
OKygen ; while the whole volume of air undergoes diminution at 
the same time. From the latter fact it follows that the quanti- 
ty of the oxygen gas absorbed is greater than the volume of 
carbonic acid seperated ; for if this were not the case no dimi- 
nution could occur. 

42. Liebig has endeavored to prove that plants absorb di- 
rectly from the atmosphere much of the nitrogen (ammonia,) 
which they require in their composition ; but his views are now 
generally considered unsound ; and the ablest physiologists teach 
that plants in a normal state imbibe carbonic acid and water 
only through the leaves, while all other constituents enter by the 
roots through the soil. Mulder lays down the following princi- 
ple as sufficiently estabhshed : — It is the function of the roots 
to convey to plants water, ammonia, organic salts, and a smjoll 
quantity of inorganic salts; hut that of the green parts, espe- 
cially of the leaves, to increase the amount of the non-^nitrog«- 
naus constituents of plants, hy the absorption of carbonic acid, 
accompanied with an emission of oxygen. 

43. The other components of the atmosphere must, therefore, 
reach the plant through the soil ; they being generally impart- 
ed to the soil by rain or snow. Their value and importance 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 1 5 

■will be better understood when we come to speak of the Soil, 
of Draining, and of Manures. 

44. Water consists of two volumes of hydrogen gas with one 
vodume of oxygen, chemically combined: or by weight: — 

Oxygen, ... - 88.91 8 

Hydrogen, - - - - 11.09 1 

100.00 9 

The oxygen and hydrogen are therefore combined exactly in 
tlie proportion 8 to 1, as appears by the proportion of the last 
column. ( Graham.) 

45. From the cbemical combination of hydrogen and oxygsn in water, 
a series of special consequences follows in the organic kingdom. It is a 
known fact that, when substances, chemically combined, are again de- 
composed, the action of other substances also, which are contained in the 
cii'cle of action is reciprocally awakened. "Wherever in the organic 
kingdom, water is decomposed — and this frequently happens — the de- 
composition re-acts on the substance from which the influence procoed- 
od, and produces impoit.int chemical transformations of all the substances 
inc'.uded in the circle of action. This chemical action proceeds, as 
regards water, from two elements, which are both chief coastitueiits of 
oigauic bodies. {^Mulder.) 

46. (a.) The first effect of water on plants is that they are 
moistened by it. It acts chemically, forming hydrates with or- 
ganic compounds ; also, merely as a liquid, to moisten, dissolve, 
or keep solid substances in suspension. 

47. (h.) Water is indispensable to keep the fleshy parts soft, 
to enable them to grow and be fed. 

48. (c.) also as a dissolving and suspending fluid. 

For it is only by the circulation of a fluid through the existing 
]>arts of an organic whole, that the support and nourLshment of 
the whole organism can be effected ; and many of its actions 
rest entirely upon this process. 

49. (d.) The action of wator differs in plants and animals as 



1 6 aghicultubal text-book. 

to the way in wMch it disappeare again from the organic sub- 
stances. 

50. Plants receive water from (a,) the dew, (h,) from rain, 
(Cf) from the soil by evaporation ; in case of irrigation, and in 
cfsrtaia locahties, directly (d,) from etreams or ponds, and (e,) 
from vapor held, in suspension in the atmosphere. 

51. A cubic inch of water at 62 ° Fahr^ Barometer 30 incbea, weigha 
in fiir 252,458 grains. The imperial gallon has been defined to contain 
10 pounds avoirdupois (70,000 grains) of distilled water at that temper- 
ature and pressure. Its capacity is, therefore, 277.19 cubic inches. Tb« 
specific gravity of water at 60 * Fahr. ia 1, being the unit to which thu 
dejisities of all other liquids and solids are conveniently referred ; it is 
815 times heavier than air at that temperatura 

Water readily combines with or absorbs a great variety of 
solid or gasous bodies ; and it ia by means of water that roost 
of tha materials of the structure of plants are introduced. Oon- 
aequently the composition of the water which cultivated plqjite 
may receive in any given locality is of great importance to tb* 
Fainner. 

53. We have already seen (§28-87) that rain, washing tl*e. 
air, receives a variety of substances from the atmosphere which 
it conveys to the soil and plant ; but the amount of these sub^n- 
cefi varies in different positions. Thus Dr. Madden has calculat^l 
that the quantity of rain which falls at Penicuick, in Scotland, 
in a year, brings down upon each acre of land in that neighbor- 
hood more than 600 lbs. weight of common salt, (Johnston.) 
■while in countiies remote from the sea it is believed that no 
salt is held in suspension in the atmosphere. And thus, tbs 
rain may supply or withhold an important element of vegita- 
tion. 

54. Kain water ia purer than spring, river, or sea watei. 
Dew is behevod to be purer than ordinary rain water. 

Dew is caused by the cooling of the earth, plants, dx., by fiottur- 
nal fiidiatioTi, The appearance of dew always follows, never preccdce 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. l7 

the fall in temperature of the bodies on which it is deposited ; thence 
tlie phenomenon cannot be attributed to anything more than a s mple 
condensation of the watery vapor contained in the air, comparable in all 
respects to that which takes place upon the surface of a vessel contain- 
ing a fluid that is colder than the air. The quantity of the moisture 
dissolved in the atmoaphere is so much the greater as the temperature 
is higher. In very warm climates the dew is so copious as to assist 
vegetation essentially, supplying the place of rain during a great part of 
the year. When the sky is clear and calm during the night, vegetables 
cool down and very soon show a temperature inferior to that of the air 
■which surrounds them. Thus plants are often destroyed by frost in 
spring, when the thermometer, a few feet above the ground, stands 
above the freezing point. But clouds, preventing the rapid radiatior, 
also prevent plants cooling to the same point; and on cloudy nights, 
as also on those proceeding severe rain stormp, there is no dew. 
The Farmers of Peru, South America, whose crops are often destroyed 
by this nocturnal radiation, have long been in the habit of making arti- 
ficial clouds by setting fire to a heap of wet straw or dung, and by this 
means raising a cloud of smoke which destroys the transparency of the 
atmosphere, from which they have so much to apprehend. Unless the 
plants and surface of the earth cool below the temperature of the air there 
cannot be dew. (Boussingault.) 

55. But it is from springs, and tlie water othen^'ise contained 
in the earth that plants cheiflj receive their inorganic nourish- 
ment. As such water is always rising to the surface, it brings 
with it whatever substances are held in suspension by it, and 
deposits them either near the roots of the plants or on the sur- 
face, to be washed down again by rain. Thus the great marl 
beds, which form the bottom of most of the small lakes of the 
interior of Michigan, are deposits of lime dissolved in springs, 
and which becomes a carbonate of lime, and therefore insoluble^ 
when exposed to the atmosphere. The great beds of nitrate of 
potash and soda, (salt^yetre^) and other salts, found on the sm-- 
face in various pai-ts of the world, are beheved to owe their 
existence to the same cause. Tables of the analyses of various 
waters will be here given, by which it will be seen how impor- 
tant an element it is in the production of vegetation : 
2 



1 8 AGRICULTirBAL TEXT-BOOK. 

56. Sea Water, (Schweitzer,) from the Englisli Channel. 

Water, 96,474 

Common Salt, 2,706 

Chloride of Potassium, . - - 76 

Chloride of Magnesium, - - - 366 

Bromide of Magnesium, ... 3 

Sulphate of Magnesia, - - - - 229 

Sulphate of Lime, - - - - 140 

Carbonate of Lime, .... 3 

Iodine, traces. 

Ammonia, .----- traces. 



100,000 
57. ScuYLKiLL Water, (B. Silliman, Jr.,) taken from the 
Fairmount Reservoir, Philadelphia: 

GraiDS in I gallon. 

Chloride of Sodium, .... 0.1470 

Chloride of Magnesium, - - - - 0.0094 

Sulphate of Magnesia, ... 0.0570 

Carbonate of Lime, - - - - 1.8720 

Carbonate of Magnesia, - - - 0.3510 

Silica, 0.0800 

Carbonate of Soda, .... 1.6436 

Organic and other matter, volatile at red heat, 1.2400 



5.5000 
Carbonic acid given off by boihng from 1 gallon, 3.879 cubic 
inches. 

The solid, fixed, and insoluble residue of the same 

WATER. 

Grains in I gnlloB. 

Solid residue at 212"^ fahr. - - - 5.50 
Fixed at a red heat, ...» 3.69 

Insoluble in water, - - - - 2.145 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 19 

The Schuylkill water, when settled clear, is water of superior 
purity. 

58. The waters of the Dead Sea, ( Poggendorff,) pro- 
cured near thq, North end, not far from the mouth of the Jordan : 
Chloride of Calcium, ... - 2.894 
Chloride of Magnesium, - - - - 10.534 
Chloride of Potassium, - - - 1.398 
Chloride of Sodium, .... 6.578 
Chloride of Aluminum, . - - 0.018 
Bromide of Magnesium, - - - -0.251 
Sulphate of Lime, - - - - 0.088 
Sihca, 0.003 



21.773 

59. Water from the Great Salt Lake, Utah Territory, 
(Dr. L. D. Gale.) The water was perfectly clear, and had the 
specific gravity of 1.1 70. 

100 parts evaporated to diyness, and heated to 300 '^ Fahr., 
gave solid contents 22.422, and consisted of 

Chloride of Sodium, ... - 20.196 
Sidphate of Soda, .... 1.834 

Chloride of Magnesium, ... 0.252 

Chloride of Calcium, - - - - 0. trace. 

60. Warm Spring, of Salt Lake City, (Dr. L. D. Gale,) 
100 parts of water gave : — 

Sulphuretted hydrogen, absorbed in the water, 0.037454 
" " combined with basis, 0.000728 

Carbonate of Lime, precipated by boiling 0.075000 

Carbonate of Magnesia, " " 0.022770 

Chloride of Calohmi, - - - . 0.005700 

Sulphate of Soda, 0.064835 

Chloride of Sodium, .... 0.816600 

1.023087 



20 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



61. The Artesian Well, at Grenalle, near Paris, (Payen,) 
contains in 100,000 parts: — 

Carbonate of Lime, - - - - 6.80 

Carbonate of Magnesia, .... 1.42 

Bicarbonate of Potash, - - - - 2.96 

Sulphate of Potash, . . . . 1.20 

Chloride of Potassium, - - - - 1.09 

Silica, 0.57 

Yellow matter, not defined, - - - o.02 

Organic nitrogenous matter, - - - 0.24 



14.30 



62. Several Springs at Hartford, Connecticut, (JBuIl,) 
give in 10,000 parts of water: — 





I- 


II. 


III. 


IV. 1 


V. 


Sulphate of Lime, 


0.69 


0.61 


0.30 


0.79 


0.89 


Chloride of Ma2;nesium, 


0.41 


0.23 


0.22 


0.81 


0.41 


Chloride of Calcium, 


1.12 


0.70 


0.39 




179 


Chloride of Sodium, - 


1.91 








2.67 


Carbonate of Lime, 


2.25 


1.31 


0.21 


1.48 




Carbonate of Magnesia, 


0.19 








1.51 


Crenate of Maonesia, 




0.13 


0.76 


0.44 




Carbonate of Soda, - 


0.22 


1.09 


1.19 


2.35 


2.67 


Oxide of Iron, - - ? 
Alumina, - - - > 


0.04^ 


0.38 


0.14^ 


0.04^ 


trace. 


Lime, - - - - 








0.23 




Silica, - - - 


0.18 


0.60 


0.14 


0.04 


0.10 


Loss, - - - - 


0.10 
7.11 


0.46 
5.51 




0.18 
6.36 


1.78 


Total fixed insrredients. 


3.35 


11.82 



63. These examples are sufficient to show how water in 
the earth is charged with foreig-n matter, varjnng constantly, 
according to circumstances. The absolute quantity of saline 
matter contained in spring water, has been shown by Grange to 
be influenced in some cases, (as in the valley of the Isere,) by 
the relative height of the locality, and increases from the tops 
of the mountains towards the valleys. The relative quantities 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 21 

of tlie different salts is variable ; the soluble salts, particularly 
the cHorides, were found in tliis instance to diminish ; while the 
insoluble, or difficultly soluble salts, gypsum and carbonate of 
lime increased as the site of the spring was at a lower level. 
The nature of the soil, likewise, alters the relative quantities of 
the different salts. The chlorides preponderate in magnesian 
soils, and vary from 25 to 32 per cent., while in anthracitic soil 
they do not amount to more than 10 or 16 per cent., and in 
calcareous soil to only between 4 and 8 per cent, of the saline 
matter. The sulphates are found in nearly the same proportions 
in calcareous and anthracitic soils ; in the former, they vary from 
24 to 31, and in the latter from 18 to 37 per cent. In the 
Nicomien, they do not amount to more than 5 or 12 per cent 
of the dissolved saline matter. The carbonates vary from 36 
to 47 per cent, in granitic soils; from 48 to 71 in anthracitic, 
and from 83 to 88 per cent, in chalk soils. Soda salts, (chlorides 
and sulphates,) preponderate in magnesian, and particularly in 
anthracitic soils; the total quantity of sulphates in the latter 
soils is much greater. Magnesian salts are remarkably constant 
in water from magnesian and anthracitic soils; their relative 
quantity averages between 19 and 23 per cent, in water from 
granitic salts and slates; and between 11 and 23 in anthracitic 
formations. — (Knap20 .) 

64. The quantity of saline and earthy matter in spring water, 
varies from about 20 gi'ains to 1,800 gi-ains in the gallon; when 
above 100 gi-ains per gallon, it constitutes a mineral Avater. The 
average quantity in ordinary spring water is from 20 to 80 
grains. The most common salts are sulphate and carbonate of 
lime, sulphate, muriate, and carbonate of potash and soda. 

65. The presence of phosphoric acid in some waters has re- 
cently been discovered. 

66. Three-fourths of the weight of the body of man and of 
the higher animals is composed of water; and the lower ani- 
mals are constituted in like manner. Even the wood of trees 



22 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



contains one-tliird and more of its weight of water. Dr. Salis- 
biuy gives tlie following tables exhibiting the per ceutage of 
water, dry matter, and ash in the horse chestnut, (^sculm hip- 
2)ocastanum,) at Albany, N. Y., at two different periods : 

MAY i, 1849. 





liiibriciited 
scales of 
bud.s coated 
with wax. 


'0 

s 

■3 




Rark from 
limbs 2 indi- 
es ill diame- 
ter. 

Wood from 
limbs 2 inch- 
es in diame- 
ter 


Per cent, of water, - 
Per cent, dry matter, - 
Per cent, ash, - 
Per cent, ash, cal. on dry ? 
matter, - - \ 


80.000 

20.000 

1.852 

9.359 


79.408 

20.592 

1.838 

8.927 


88.987 

11.013 

1.271 

12.479 


51.000 

49.000 

6.000 

10.204 


56.130 

43.870 

0.510 

1.162 



MAY 18, 1849. 



e=-3 



>- 3 



Si i 
i^ « ^ 



^■%'&Z 



Per cent, of water, 
Per cent, dry matter, - 
Per cent, ash, - 
Per cent, ash, cal. on dry 
matter, 



87.047 

12.953 

1.313 

10.133 



78.485 

20.515 

1.582 

7.746 



84.730 

15.270 

1.100 

7.209 



50.500 

46.500 

4.290 

9.226 



48.000 

51.970 

0.550 

1.116 



67. The air in water is a mixture of the same constituents as 
atmospheric air, but they are not present in the same propor- 
tions — ^the air contained in water being much richer in oxygen, 
and containing 32 per cent, of its volume of that element 
(Knapp,) and in water from freslily melted snow 34.8 per 
cent. The quantity of air retained by water at an altitude of 6 
to 8000 feet is reduced to one-third of its usual proportion. 
Hence fishes cannot Hve in Alpine lakes. 

63. Water contained in the soil may be so impregnated with 
salts or organic acids as to destroy vegetation. Some of the 
salts of iron are thus destructive. A cure may be effected by 
thorough draining. Water containing the salts of lime is called 
Hard Water. Its effect on horses is very remarkable. Hard 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 23 

water drawn fresli from the well will make the coat of a liorse 
unaccustomed to it stare : and it will not unfrequently gi'ipe 
and otherwise injure him. ( Youatt.) Milk, I utter, and cheese 
are also sensibly aflfected by the quality of the water drunk by 
the cow. Dr. Wilson has found fluoride of calcium in milk, as 
well as in the blood and urine of auijnals, which must have been 
derived from this substance dissolved in the water usually drunk. 
(Proc. British Assoc.) 

69. Goitre and Cretinism, diseases common in the vallies of 
the Alps, as well as in the other pai-ts of the world, are believ- 
ed to arise from the deleterious action of the water containing 
salts of magnesia, and the absence of a sufficient quantity of 
lime. In some places cattle are subject to a disease of the bones 
in consequence of a want of lime in the water. On the contra- 
ry, carbonic acid acts favorably on vegetable life. Dr. Daubeny 
found by exjjeriments, that although very large quantities of 
carbonic acid were injurious to plants, yet that when present in 
water, from one to five per cent, more than is natural, it is bene- 
ficial. 

VO. M. Lassaigne has found arsenic present in the natural 
deposites of the mineral waters of Wattviller to the amount of 
2.8 per cent. ; but the poisonous property of the ai-senic is de- 
stroyed by its combination with peroxide of iron. Free sulphuric 
acid has also been detected in springs in Virginia. 

Vl. River water differs much in its constituents from spiing 
water. It takes its character from the geological formations 
through which it flows. It is apt to hold in suspension much 
sand, earth, and organic matter. The quantity of sediment dis- 
charged by the Mississippi River annually is estimated at from 
2,137,061,974 cubic feet (Marr) to 28,188,083,892 cubic feet 
(Brown and Dickeson.) 



CHAPTER III. 



THE SOIL. 



i'2. To a common obsei-ver tlie soil is a heavy, cohesive, 
toipid substance ; varying in color ; and, more or less, mixed 
with stones. Examined scientifically, it is a compound sub- 
stance ; made up of many materials, each of them differing in 
its qualities ; some of them lying in mere mechanical contact ; 
others chemically combined. The soil is usually divided into 
two parts, (a,) the surface soil ; (b,) the sub-soil. They usual- 
ly differ (c,) in constitution ; (d,) mechanical structure ; and 
(e,) by the first (a,) containing more organic matter, and less 
salts than the other. 

V3. Strictly all accumulations of loose materials resting upon 
rock constitutes the soil. These loose materials vary in depth 
from a few inches to one or two himdred feet ; and occasionally 
consist of different layers or beds placed one over the other. 

V4. The earthy matter of all soils has been produced by the 
gradual decay, degi'adation, or crmnbling down of previously ex- 
isting rocks. 

75. Soils axQ formed (a,) immediately from the rock upon 
which they rest ; or (b,) from deposites, drift, &c., brought by 
water and other geological causes from a distance. In the latter 
case, the soil may have no relation whatever, either in mineralo- 
gical characters or in chemical constitution, to the immediately 
subjacent rocks. To these constituents mu^t be added the re- 
mains of plants and animals ; and cai-bon. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 25 

76. The principal rocks whose decay has given rise to the furraation 
of soil may be briefly enumerated as follows : (Mulder.) 

(a,) Quartz Rocks; (6.) Feldspar Rocks; (c.) Mica Rocks; (d.) 
Hornblende Rocks ; (e.) Serpentine Rocks; (/,) Augite Rocks ; ((/,) 
Alumina Rocks; (/«,) Lime Rocks; (?',) Gypsum; (j,) Iron. 

77. The value of Irrigation for the purpose of nianuie depends upon 
the geological formation through •which the stream passes. 

To. Soils differ mucli in the relative quality of tlie substances 
wliicii compose tliem ; but all fertile soils contain the same ma- 
terials. 

80. The groat bulk of all sucli soils consists of three earths : 
(a,) Silica, (or sand,) (I,) Alumina, (or clay,) (c,) Lime. Gen- 
erally, these lie in juxtaposition, inert, and producing no effect 
on each other. To these must be added (d,) Water, which is 
alvrays present uniting them. Deprived of water, soil becomes 
dust ; but the water varies in its relative quantity according to 
the proportionate mixtm-e of these three materials. 

81. The economical character and usefulness of the soil varies 
in proportion to the predominance of one or other of these sub- 
stances. 

82. On a general average, the earthy part of the soil consti- 
tutes about 96 per cent, of its whole weight when free from 
water. (Johnston.) 

83. By Silica, is meant siliceous sand or siliceous gravel of various 
degrees of fineness from au impalpable powder to sand-stones. By Clay 
— a finely divided chemical compound consisting very nearly of 60 per 
cent, of Silica and 40 per cent, of Alumina, with a little oxide of iron, 
and from which no f^andy matter can be separated meclianically or by 
decantation. By lime —Carbonate of Lime, in the shape of chalk, lime- 
stones, marl, shell-sand, &c. 

84. Soils may be classified as follows: — 

(a,) Pure Clay, pijje day, = 60 per cent. Silica, 40 per 
cent. Alumina, oxide of iron chemically combined, (b,) Strono-- 
est clay soil, brick day, pure clay (a,) with 6 to 10 per cent* 
of sand which can be separated by boiling and decantation. 
(c,) Clay loam = 15 to 30 per cent, fine sand and pure clay. 



26 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

(d,) Loamy clay = 30 to 60 per cent, sand and pure clay. 
(e,) Sandy loam = 60 to 90 per cent, sand and pure clay. 
(/,) Sandy soil contains no more than 10 per cent, of pure clay. 
(r/,) Marley soils, in wliich the proportion of lime is more than 
5, but does not exceed 20 per cent, of the whole weight of the 
diy soil, (hj Calcareous soils, in which the lime exceeding 20 
per cent, becomes the distinguishing constituent. ({,) Vegeta- 
ble soils — of various kinds, from garden mould which contains 
from 5 to 10 per cent., to the peaty soil in which the organic 
matter may amount to 60 or 70 per cent. These soils are also 
clayey, loamy, or sandy, according to the predominant character 
of the earthy admixtures. 

85. The only use of the great bulk of the soil appears to be 
(a,) the upholding of the plant, and giving it a firm basis from 
which to spring ; (b,) the absorption of gasses, and the imbib- 
ing and retaining of other elements; (c,) the supplying of 
water. 

86. The remaining constituents of the soil may be divided 
into (a,) Organic matter; (b,) and chemical substances and 
salts, or Inorganic matter. 

87. All soils contain organic matter in a gi-eater or less pro- 
portion. This organic matter consists, in part, of decayed ani- 
mal, but chiefly of decayed vegetable substances ; sometimes in 
brown or black fibrous portions ; sometimes forming only a fine 
brown powder intimately intermixed with the mineral matters 
of the soil ; sometimes scarcely perceptible in either of these 
forms ; and existing only in a state of organic compounds more 
or less devoid of color ; and at times entirely soluble in water. 
In soils which appear to consist only of pure sand or clay, or- 
ganic matter in this latter form may often be detected in con- 
siderable quantities.' 

88. Chemically the organic compounds of the soil are thus termed : — 
(o,) Crenic acid ; (6,) Apocienic acid ; (c,) Geic acid ; (d,) Humic 
acid ; (e,) humin, (or humus) ; (/,) Ulmic acid ; (y,) Ulmiu. Humiu 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 27 

and ulmin are insoluble in nlkalies and in water ; the others are readily 
soluble in alkalies, and more or less in water also. 

89. All organic matter may be resolved into the four gasses, 
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; with or without a little 
a^A, or inorganic matter. 

90. The nature and quantity of organic matter in the soil have 
great influence upon its character and fertility. 

91. The most useful portions of plants are chiefly organic; 
as the woody fibre, starch, gum, sugar, gluten, and albumen; 
and in animals, the flesh, milk, butter, cheese, &c. Barn-yard 
manures, are also chiefly composed of water and organic matter. 
Thus, in well-preserved manure is found (Richardson,) in 100 
parts: — 

"Water, - - - - - -65 parts. 

Organic matter, - - - - 24^ " 

Inorganic salts, 10" 

92. The inorganic matter forms the smallest portion of the 
soil, but it is absolutely essential for the production of useful 
vegetation. Without it plants wiU not produce seed ; and the 
deficiency of a single element may render the soil entirely 
barren. 

93. The names of these inorganic elements are : — 

Nome. In combination with Forming 

Chlorine, (Bleaching Gas,) Metals, Chlorides. 



Iodine, 


" Iodides. 


Sulphur, - - - 


" Sulphurets. 


« _ _ 


- Hydrogen, Sulphuretted Hydi-ogen. 


" - - . 


Oxygen, Sulphuric acid. 


Phosphorus, - 


" Phosphoric acid. 


Potassium, 


« Potash. 


u _ . 


- Chlorine, Chloride of Potassium. 


Sodium, - 


Oxygen, Soda. 


u . . 


- Chlorine, Common Salt. 


Calcium, - 


" Chloride of Lime. 



28 AGRICULTUEAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Calcium, ... Oxygen, Lime. 
Magnesium, - - " Magnesia. 

Aluminum, - - - « Alumina, (Clay.) 

Silicon, - - - « Silica, (Sand.) 

Iron and ) ■ " " j Oxides. 

Manganese, J - - Sulphur, ( Sulphurets. 

94. With the exception of Iodine, the above appear to be es- 
sential to the composition of aU cultivated plants. 

95. The organic and inorganic elements are chemically com- 
bined, and are always undergoing change. They perhaps never 
exist in plants in a simple form. 

96. These inorganic materials may be so earned away from 
the soil by injudicious cropping that at last the land refuses to 
bear grain, until they are replaced, or, in other words, till the 
land is manured. Again, manure, by its chemical action, may 
set free these elements in the soil which were previously imiit 
for absorption by roots. To recapitulate 

97. A fertile soil consists of thi-ee earths: — (a,) Sand; (h,) 
Clay, and (c,) Lime, mechanically combined; (d,) of four 
gasses, forming organic matter ; and (e,) of eleven or twelve in- 
organic elements, in small quantities, chemically combined. 

98. Practically, the difference between a rich and an impov- 
erished soil is this : — A rich soil contains every thing a plant 
requires in a soluble state, ready to be at once absorbed by the 
roots of the plant. A worn-out soil contains the same constitu- 
ents but in an insoluble state, not capable of being dissolved in 
water, and therefore unable to enter into the roots. 

99- On whatever soil a plant is grown, if it shoots up in a 
healthy manner, and fairly ripens its seed, the quantity and qual- 
ity of the ash is nearly the same. 

100. No two plants of a different order contain the same 
quantity and quahty of inorganic matter. The more widely two 
plants differ in their natural character, {e. g. turnips and wheat,) 
the wider will be the difference between their constituents. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 29 

101. Ou these principles, in practical farming, is based tlie 
utility of fallowing, and the rotation of crops. 

102. The mechanical texture of the soil has a strong influence 
upon its practical fertility; very heavy clays, and very light 
sands, being both, for opposite reasons, apt to produce badly. 
The soil in which the particles are the finest, so that the air can 
enter, and the roots spread without difiiculty, is, other things 
being equal, the best. In clay soils this division of the particles 
must be produced by the plow and other mechanical means; 
while in loose sands it is too great, and must be amended by an 
admixture of clay and other substances. The gi-eat fertility of 
the bottom lands of the Scioto River, Ohio, is attributed to the 
remarkable comminution of the particles of these soils. 

103. The sub-soil also produces a sensible effect on the con- 
dition of the soil above it. If the soil is clay, it is impervious 
to water, and if the sub-soil is clay also, it also is impervious to 
water. The immediate effect of this arrangement is to render 
both soil and sub-soil habitually wet, and therefore cold, or per- 
haps barren, until evaporation dries first the one and then the 
other. A retentive sub-soil may render even a porous, sandy or 
gi-avelly soil above it habitually wet. A gTavelly sub-soil, which 
is alv/ays porous, greatly assists in keeping a clay soil dry. V/hen 
a porous soil rests on a sandy sub-soil, Avater can do no injury, 
while in dry weather, the evaporation from below may do great 
good. On the other hand, a clay sub-soil retains manure, Avhile 
a sandy one allows it to leach away, and in practice, renders the 
soil incapable of improvement. Rock may act either as a re- 
tentive or porous sub-soil, according to its structure. In many 
clay sub-soils, draining is absolutely necessary. In sandy and 
gravelly sub-soils, very rarely so. 

103*. There is an important element which must always be 
taken into account in estimating the value of soils — their depth 
or thickness. In running a deepish fuiTOw in a cultivated field, 
we generally distinguish, at a glance, the depth of the super- 



30 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

ficial layer, wLicli is conunonly culled the mould or vegetable 
earth; this is a layer generally impregnated with humus, and 
is looser and more friable than the sub-soil upon ■which it rests. 
The thickness of this superficial la3-er is extremely variable; 
varying from two inches to two feet. Depth of mould or vege- 
table soil is always, practically, advantageous ; it is one of the 
best conditions to successful agriculture. If we have depth of 
soil, and the roots of our plants do not penetrate sufficiently to 
derive benefit from the fertility that hes below, we can always, 
by working a little deeper, bring up the inferior layers to the 
surface, and so make them concur in fertilizing the soil. Farther, 
a deep soil suffers less from excess or deficiency of moisture ; 
the rain that falls has more to moisten, and is therefore absorbed 
in greater quantity than by thin soils; and, once imbibed, it 
remains in store against drought. 

104. Soils also vary much in color, as (a,) black; (b,) Avhite; 
(c,) blue ; (d,) red ; (e,) brown. The colors of soil have a 
considerable influence in regulating the quantities of heat ab- 
sorbed from the sim's rays; the darker colored absorb more 
heat than the lighter colored ; and the dark colored reflect the 
least. 

105. According to Shubler, while the Iheimomptcr was 77 ® in the 
shade in August, sand of a natural color indicated a temperature of 
1121^ ® ; black sand, 123,U = ; and white sand, 110 = , exhibiting a dif- 
ference of 13 ^ in favor of the black color. 

106. Color also influences the power of soil in retaining the 
heat of the sun. Dark colored soils, in the absence of the sun's 
rays, radiate or part with the heat more quickly than light col- 
ored. Thus sand cools more slowly than clay, and clay than a 
soil containing much vegetable matter. This principle has a 
strong practical influence on the deposit of dew, and injury to 
vegetation by night frosts. 

107. Soils also vary in their power of absorbing and retaining 
moisture. The absorption is greatest in clay soils, especially 
when they contain humus, (vegetable matter.) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



31 



Schubler gives the following table of the relatiTe absorbing power of 
soils : 





1,000 gruins of enrth oti 


a surface of 50 square 


KWDS OF EARTH. 


inches, absorbed in 




12 hours. 24 hours. 


48 houiK |72 hours. 




Grains, (rrains. 


Grains. 


Grains. 


Siliceous sand. 


water. water. 


water 


Owater 


Sandy clay, 


21 " 26 " 


28 " 


28 " 


Loamy clay, 


25 '• 30 " 


34 " 


32 " 


Brick clay. 


30 '• 36 " 


40 " 


41 " 


Giav pure clnv, 


37 " 42 •' 


48 " 1 49 " 


Garden mould, - 


35 " 45 " 


50 " 


52 " 


Arable soil, 


16 " 22 " 


23 " 


23 " 


Humus, 


80 " 97 " 


110 " |120 " 



Thus, while sandy lands may suffer from long continuance of 
dry weather, a neighboring field abounding in humus may ab- 
sorb sufiScient moisture from the air to serve all the requirements 
of vegetation. 

108. The power of saturation by water, and the retention of 
moisture, vary in the same manner, and nearly in the same 
degrees. 

109. Another important physical propeity of soils, is their 

power to absorb oxygen from the air. 

According to Schubler : — 
Grains. Cubic inche?.\ ^ , , 

1,000 Siliceous sand, in a wet state, absorbed oxygen, 0.24 i g'3 g 
1,000 Sandy clay, - - - - 1.39 /-Si's 

1,000 Loamy clav, .... 1.65 ( | Z-^ 

1,000 Brick clay," .... 204 / 2S g 

1.000 Gray pure clay, - - - -2 29 

1,000 Garden mould, .... 2.60 

1,000 Arab e soil, .... - 2.43 

1,000 Humus, - - - - 3 04 

Soils lose, in drying, the property of absorbing oxygen from 
the air, but regain it in the same proportion as before, on being 
moistened. The action of organic manures, and the production 
of carbonic acid, depend on the existence of oxygen in the soil ; 
and, in practice, the difference is very great. Every farmer 
knows how little good is effected by his barn-yard manure on a 
crop in a very dry season, compared with a moderately wet one. 



o 5; u 

— o._2" 
E c ?J . 
E S «g 
b'S.E tie 



32 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

And, in the same manner, such manures act more rapidly in 
soils rich in humus than in those chiefly consisting of sand. 

110. The different classes of soils are distinguished by grow- 
ing different classes of weeds ; and frequently by the existence 
of different noxious insects. 

111. The capillary jDower of soils also differs. 

Capillary attraction or power, means the power by which a liquid 
ascends in the interior of a capillary tube, or tube of small bore, 
above the surface of the liquid which surrounds it. The phenomenon 
occurs in solid bodies which are capable af being wetted. Thus, 
when water is poured into the basin of a flower-pot, tlie soil gradu- 
ally sucks it in, and becomes moist even to the surface. The same 
takes place in the soil in the open fields. The water from beneath — 
that contained in the subsoil — is gradually sucked up to the surface. 
Where water is present in excess, this capillary action keeps the soil 
always moist and cold. 

Evaporation takes place from the surface of the land, and as 
each atom of moisture is taken up into the atmosphere, its place 
is suppHed by another atom, communicated by the contact of 
the particles of soil, the more superficial acting on the deeper 
particles like so many pumps, to elevate the water, and supply 
the loss. Thus a natiu-ally porous soil may be kept injuriously 
wet by an impervious sub-soil several feet below. 

Ordinaiy soils possess the power of separating, from solution 
in water, the different earthy and alkaline substances presented 
to them in manure. But these substances, necessaiy for the 
growth of the plant, are rapidly carried, by rain and other causes* 
down into the sub-soil, beyond the reach of roots. Were there 
no counteracting influences, these substances would soon be lost, 
and all soils become barren. But when wann weather comes, 
and the surface soil dries rapidly, then by capillary action the 
water rises from beneath, bringing with it the soluble substances 
that exist in the sub-soil, through which it ascends. And as 
this ascent and evaporation go on as long as the dry weather 
continues, the saUne matter accumulates about the roots of the 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



33 



plants, so as put witliin their reach an ample supply of every 
soluble substance ■which is not really defective in the soil. Prac- 
tically, this principle is of gieat importance in manming and 
draining. 

The relative capillary power of soils has not yet been thor- 
oughly tested ; but, generally, in sandy and hght soils, of which 
the particles are very fine, this capiUaiy action is of great impor- 
tance, and is intimately connected with the power of producing 
remunerating crops. 

112. The following analyses are given as examples of various 
classes of Soils : — 

I. Clat : — Three specimens from the Zuider Zee, in the Netherlands 
( E. H. von B&vmhauer ) 



Second. 



Third. 



Insoluble quartzose 


sand, 


with alumina 








and silica, 


- 


- 


57.646 


51.706 


55.372 


Soluble silica, 






2.310 


2.496 


2.286 


Alumina, 


. 


- 


1.830 


2.900 


2.688 


Peroxide of iron, - 






9.038 


10.305 


11.864 


Protoxide of iron, 


- 


- 


0.350 


0.563 


0.200 


Protoxide of manganese, 




0.283 


0.354 


0.284 


Lime, 


. 


- 


4.092 


5.096 


2.480 


Magnesia, 






0.130 


0.140 


0.128 


Potash, 


• 


- 


1.026 


1.430 


1.521 


Soda, 






1.972 


2.069 


1.937 


Ammonia, 


- 


- 


0.060 


0.07S 


0.075 


Phusphoric acid, - 






0.466 


0.324 


0.478 


Sulphuric acid, 


- 


- 


0.896 


1.104 


0.576 


Carbonic acid. 






6.085 


6.940 


4.775 


Chlorine, 


. 


- 


1.240 


1.302 


1.418 


Humic acid, 






2.798 


3.991 


3.428 


Crenic acid, - 


- 


. 


0.771 


0.731 


0.037 


Apocrenic acid, - 






0.107 


0.160 


0.152 


Humin, vegetable remains, and water 








chemically combinec 


. 


8.324 


7.700 


9.340 


Wax and resin. 


. 


- 


trace 


trace 


trace 


Loss, 




• 


0.542 


0.611 


0.753 



100.000 100.000 100.000 



34 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Soluble ix 

Watbr. 

A.2.470prct 

B. 0.147 " 



These are very rich soils, and derive their origin from the 
country, and are the product of decayed rocks. 

113. II. Cotton Lands of Mississippi. {J. P. Norton.) 

Organic matter. 

Silica, - - . - 

Iron, alumma, and phosphates. 
Lime, . . . - 

Magnesia, . . - 

Manganese, - . - 

Potash, ... 

Chloride of sodium, (common salt,) 
Soda, - - - - 

^Sulphuric acid, 

r Silica, . - - - 

Alumina, - - - - 

Iron, - - • - 

Lime, . - - - 

Magnesia, ... 

Manganese, . . - 

Potash, . . - 

Soda, . - . - 

Sulphuric acid, 

I Phosphoric acid, ... 

f Silica, .... 
Iron and alumina, - - - 

Lime, - - - - 

Magnesia, - - - - 

Manganese, ... 



Rhine 



solodle d« 
Acid. 
A 4.96 pr ct. 
B. 5.19 « 



Insolcblb 

Portion. 

A.87.83prct. 

B 88.373 " 



A. 


B. 


4.740 


6.290 


1.299 


0.072 


0.230 


0.019 


0.389 


6.020 


0.090 


none 


0.(134 


none 


0.248 


0.120 


0.107 






0.015 


0.144 


0.009 


0.409 


0.920 


1.644 


1.820 


1.448 


0.670 


0.535 


1.340 


0.576 


0.080 


0.002 


nor.e 


0.348 


0.070 




0.180 


0.070 


0.080 


042 


0.n03 


78.845 


84.930 


5.946 


2 370 


1.098 


0.260 


1.142 


0.680 


0623 


none 


100.059 


89,867 



A. is from a strong cotton soil. B. was originally the same soil, but 
has been worn out by long cultivation. This analysis is peculiarly val- 
uable as an illustration. The fir.st table gives the organic elements 
soluble in water, and which alone are availal)le for the growth of the 
plant. In the new soil this amounts to about 2)^0 P'^'' cent, of the 
whole. In the worn out soil, it is very trifling. A plant grown in the 
latter would be nearly starved ; while it would be entirely deficient in 
two elements of nutrition. The second table gives the inorganic ele- 
mants soluble in acid, but not in water. While, therefore, these are not 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 35 

available for a growing crop, yet by means of rest, by the action of car- 
bonic acid, and of the atmosphere, or hy fnUouing, and by the applica- 
tion oi chemical or dissolving marmres, they may, to a certain extent, be 
rendered solnble in water, and the producing ])ower of the soil be restor- 
ed. Tlius, shut np, there are materials enough to grow twice the amount 
of crops already taken fiom tlie land.,' The Jhi|d table gives the inor- 
ganic constituents, which are not soluble by any available means ; and 
therefore they must be considered only as the basis for. the others. 

Another fact to be observed is the very small proportion of such con- 
stituents available at any one time for the growth of plants ; and the 
facility with which soils may be impoverished. In each 100 lbs. of the 
soil, free from moisture, only about 2 lbs. can be converted into vegeta- 
tion. 

This table will be again referred when we come to consider the sub- 
ject of manures : but it is necessary to remark that, in actual growth, a 
plant vifiy receive more than the above of necesairy nulrition by means 
of water evaporating frpm below. (§111) 

114. III. Fertile pasture soil (A). Fertile arable soil (B). Barren 
or unfruitful soil (C).\ (Jo/(?(S<o7J.) 

Silica, Quartz, Sand, and Silicates, 

Alumina, ... 

Oxides of iron, 

Oxide of Manganese, 

Lime, . . - 

Matftiesia, ... 

Potash and Soda, 

Phosphoric acid, - - - 

Sulphuric acid, 

Chlorine, ... 

Ilumicacid, - - - 

Insoluble humus. 

Organic matter, containing nitrogen, 

Water, .... 

Carbonic acid united to the lime, - 0.080 trace 

The first is from a fertile alluvial district of Hanover, from the banks 
of the Wescr ; the second, from the banks of the Ohio River, is celebra- 
ted for yielding successive crops of corn for a long period without ma- 
nure ; and the third is from a moor in East Freislaud. 



A. 


B. 


c. 


71.849 


87.143 


61.576 


9.350 


5.666 


0.450 


5.410 


2.220 


0.524 


0.925 


0.360 


trace 


0.987 


0.564 


0.320 


0.245 


(I.3I2 


0.130 


0.007 


0.145 


trace 


0.131 


0.1.60 


" 


0.174 


0.027 


<( 


0.002 


0.036 


" 


1.270 


1.304 


11470 


7.5.50 


1.072 


26.530 


2.000 


l.CU 


.... 


0.100 


.... 






36 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

115. IV. The fullowing (A,) is from an analysis t<f an inferior wheat 
soil, at Three Rivers, Michigan, by Dr. S. H. Douglass, compared with 
a good and fertile soil (B,) analyzed by Prof, Norlon. 

1000 parts gave soluble in water A. B. 

Humic ac'.d and ammonia, 
Silica, . . . . - 

Lime, - - - - - 

Potash and Soda, - - - - 

Iron, alumina, and phosphates, 

1000 parts gave insoluble in water 

Silica, . - . - 

Lime, . . - . - 
Iron, alumina, and phosphates, 

Humic acid, . - - - 

Potash and Soda, ... 

Organic ajatter, - . - - 

Not ascertained, ... 

116. V. Analysis of an impoverished soil in the town of Freehold, 
Monmouth County, New Jersey, (A,) with hhe constituents wliich it 
oufht to contain to render it productive, (B.) ( Dr. Antlsdl) 



Organic matters. 

Silicates, . - - - 

Alumina, . . - . 

Lmie, _ . - - 

M.'igncsia, . . - . 

Per-oxide of iron, , . - 

Potash, - - - - 

Soda, .... 

Chlorine, . - - 

Sulphuric acid. 

Phosphoric acid, with iron as phosphate. 
Carbonic acid, . - - 

Moisture, ... 

Loss, ... - 



0.264 


4.740 


0.063 


1.299 


0.256 


0.389 


0.243 


0.445 


0.120 


.... 


902. 


788.45 


1.7 


10.98 


34. 


59.46 


4.7 




2.04 


.... 


54. 





.654 






A. 


B. 


4.50 


9.70 


87.60 




3.65 


5.70 


0.45 


5.90 


trace 





. 1.39 


.... 


0.01 


0.20 


. 0.08 


0.40 


0.06 


0.20 


0.12 


0.20 


0.03 


0.40 


' .... 


4.00 


2.00 


.... 


■ 0.01 


.... 



100.00 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



37 



117. "VI. Mar] from Bordentown, (A,) and from Squankum, (B.) 
Xe w Jersey . ( Dr. Aniisell . ) 



Silicates, insoluble in hydrocholoric acid, 

Alumina, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Peroxide of iron. 

Potash, - 

Soda, 

Chlorine, - 

Sulphuric acid. 

Phosphoric acid, - 

Carbonic acid, 

Moisture, 

Sulphur, combined with iron. 



118. YII. Green Sand Marl, Shrewsbury, Monmouth county. New 
Jersey; two varieties. (H. Wurtz.) 

Silica, ...... 

Alumina and oxide of iron, .... 
Potash, -.•-.- 
Magnesia, --...» 
Hygroscopic water, .... 
Combined water, ..... 

100.61 99.25 

119. VIII. Red Marl, Springfield, Mass. (Dr. C. T. Jackson.) 



' 68.66 


76.00 


7.00 


5.00 


. 1.40 


2.85 


0.38 


0.18 


- 9.00 


3.20 


3.70 


5.80 


- 0.30 


1.10 


0.20 


0.40 


- 1.30 


0.90 


0.23 


0.46 


.... 


1.84 


6.46 


2.00 


- 1.32 


0.27 


100.00 


100.00 



A. 


B. 


48.24 


47.83 


32.89 


34.98 


6.38 


4.94 


2.60 


.... 


4.81 > 
5.69 S 


11.50 



Water, .... 

Silex, ..... 

Alumina, .... 

Peroxide of iron, with a trace of manganese, 
Lime, .... 

Magnesia, .... 



8.5 

. 51.3 

16.0 

. 20.0 

2.8 

. 1.0 



99.6 



38 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

120. IX. Analyses of Shell Marl, Forfarshire, (A,) and Clay Marl, 
Ayrshire, (B,) Scotland, (Johnston.) 

Carbonate of lime, ... 

Oxideof iron and alumina, 

Organic matter, . - - - 

Clay and silicious matter, 

Water, 

1000 99. 



A. 


B. 


81.7 


8.4 


0.6 


2.2 


14.6 


2.8 


3.1 


84.9 


.... 


1.4 



CHAPTER IV. 



METEOROLOGY. 

121. A good soil, well worked, with good seed, is not tho 
only element of success in farming ; the climate has a powerful 
controlling influence on agricultural pursuits; an influence to 
which the farmer is compelled to submit. By knowledge, how- 
ever, he may so adapt his business to the climate, as to render 
the changes to which it is subject, beneficial, instead of injurious 
to him. 

122. The study of the laws which govern the climate is called 
meteorology. 

The word " meteorology " means, literally, the science of meteors ; but 
the term is applied, more extensively, to the investigation ol all the 
pliysical causes which aflect the cundition of our globe ; and particularly 
to the effects of light, heat, and winds on the earth, the ocean, and the 
atmosphere, and the results of these agents in the production of climate- 

123. As meteorology is in itself an abstnise science, it will 
only be necessary, in this place, to give such principal laws and 
fivcts as bear upon agriculture. 

124. The main elements of climate are, (a,) the temperature 
of the air ; (b,) of the soil ; (c,) the quantity of rain and dew 
that fall ; (d,) the character of the prevailing winds ; (e,) the 
length of the seasons of heat and cold ; and (f^) the seasons at 
which, and the mode in which the rains prevail. 

125. There is (a.,) a general climate, and (b,) a local chmato. 
The first is equal, over the whole globe, on the same Iso-thermal 



40 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

lines ; the second depends on local circumstances, sueli as moun- 
tains, table lands, large forests, lakes, &c., wliich affect the dis- 
tribution of heat and rain; and which may render the local 
climate better or worse than the general one. In the United 
States, the local climate is found to change as the country is 
settled and cleared; and it often varies sufficiently, within a 
comparatively small area, to influence the sort of crops to be 
grown, and the stock to be kept. 

Iso-thermal lines are lines of equal temperature ; a term applied to 
imaginary lines drawn on a map connecting all those places on the sur- 
face of tlie globe which have the same mean temperature. Lines drawn 
through places having the same summer temperature, are termed Iso- 
Vieral; those drawn through places having the same winter temperature, 
are called Iso chcimd; whilu lines drawn through places having other 
common temperatures, receive other appropriate names. Fully to ex- 
plain this to the student, it will be necessary for the teacher to exhibit a 
physical atlas of th<j globe, where the various lines are laid down. 

126. The climate may hQ practically changed, to a certain 
extent, by the farmer, by means of cutting down forests, drain- 
ing, deep plowing, high walls, and plantations of trees ; and by 
the gardener, to any extent, by means of hot-beds, hot-walls, 
glass-houses, manures, &c. 

127. The following changes take place, owing to the culti- 
vation of a new country : (a.) Fogs disappear, and with them 
agues and other diseases ; sometimes naturally ; almost always^ 
by a proper and sufficiently extensive system of drainage. * 
(Brown db DicJceson, Prof. Johnston.) (b.) Dews are less 
heavy ; the quantity of running water is diminished ; lakes and 
marshes dry up; hail-storms become more frequent; early and 
late frosts are more injurious to vegetation. — ( Boussingaiilt.) 

128. On the contrary, by neglect, a previously healthy coun- 

• A very etriking instance of the improvement of health, nnd the ceasing of mias- 
matic diseases throughout a whole township, in consequence of draining, in Beverly, 
Mass., is given in the Abetract from the Returns of Agricul. Soc. in Mass., for 1846, 
j>.3I. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 41 

try may become incapable of sustaining human life, as in the 
marshes surrounding Rome, Itah^ ; and the watei's may again 
encroach and cover laud that was previously retrieved from them, 
as in the Aragua Valley, Venezuela, So. America. — (Boussiii- 
gaidt.) 

129. The cultivation of perennial plants is limited by the 
lowest temperature of winter; that of annual plants by the mean 
temperatui'e of summer. Thus a country so cold as to be inca- 
pable of sustaining trees, may yet have a sufficiently long and 
hot summer to mature grains and vegetables ; and annual plants 
may prosper in a latitude so far North that perennial ones, indi- 
genous to the same chmate, would perish from cold. 

The heat of the stmospliere is measured by an instrument called a 
thermometer, consisting of quicksilver or alcohol, enclosed in a vacuum 
tube, with a hollow bulb at one end. This is placed upon a scale, 
graduated by actual experiment ; and the quicksilver rises and falls in 
tlie tube, according to the anionrt of l»eat. Three different modes of 
graduation are employed in different countries ; FahrenheiVs in America 
and Great Britain ; CeMigrade in France ; and Eeaumur's in France and 
other parts of Europe. 

212 degrees, ( = ) of Fahrenheit equal 100° Centigi-ade, and 80° 
Reaumur. 

33 degrees of Fahrenheit eqnal Centigrade, and Reaumur. 

There are various forms of the Thermometer, but all on the same 
principle. 

By the term mean temperature, is meant the temperature obtained by 
adding together the temperatures of the days or months required, and 
dividing by the number of days or months. Mean annual temperature 
is obtained by adding together the temperatures of all the months of tho 
year, and dividing the sum by the number of the months ; so that the 
mean annual temperature expresses the height at which the thermometer 
would stand at any place, if we could suppose it perfectly stationary 
throughout the year. 

130. For the cultivation of annual plants, it is only necessary 
to know the mean temperature of the climate during the num- 
ber of months requisite for giwvth and the maturation of the 
seed. 



42 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Boussingault gives the following list of temperatures favorable 
to tlie particular plants, in the success of which man is more 
especially interested. Some of them require a mean annual 
temperature, others only a mean summer temperature, as below : 





S 


s 




S 


8 




5 


3 




^ 




NAME. 


E 


_E 


NAME. 


_E 


J 




'« 


• — 




'5 


'a 




CS 






c« 






^ 


S 




s 


3 


t/iiijuoiaie jJcau, 


o:i • r . 


7.1- 


ttice, 


b)i~ 


75- 


Banana, 


" 


64 


Pine Apple, 


" 


68 


Indigo, 




71 


Melon, 


" 


67 


Suijar Cane, 


" 


71 


CofF.e, 


79 


74 


Coctia Nut, 


" 


7H 


Wheat, 


74 


44 


Palm, 


" 


78 


Barley, 


" 


59 


Tobacco, 


" 


65 


Potatoes, 


75 


52 


Maize, 


" 


59 


Flax, 


74 


54 


French Beans, } 
(Haricots, I 






Apple, 


72 


59 


" 


59 


Oak, 


67 


61 



Thus we can grow melons, which only require a short period 
of summer for growth and maturation ; but cannot grow pine- 
apples, which requii-e at least two years before they bear fruit; 
although the former only needs one degree of mean temperature 
less than the latter. 

131. The number of days that elapse between the commence- 
ment of vegetation and the period of ripeness is by so much the 
greater as the mean temperature is lower. Thus, wheat, with a 
mean temperature of 59 '^ F., requires 137 days to mature; 
with a temperature of .56 "^ , 160 days; with a temperature of 
76 * , 92 days. In other words, the lower the mean tempera- 
ture of the climate, the longer the crop must be in the ground 
before harvesting. And thus Indian corn may ripen in a shel- 
tered valley, but be annually cut off by frost on a mountain side 
a few miles distant 

Experiments, however, prove that many grains, brought from a climate 
with a markedly lower mean summer temperature, to one hieher, only 
acquire the power of ripening early by degrees of iuccetsive annual cropn, 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 43 

a fact which is practically importaut in the growth and quality of cer- 
tain grains. 

Upon every parallel of latitude, at all elevations above tlie 
level of the sea, the same plant receives in the course of its ex- 
istance an equal qiuintity of heat. 

132. The temperature of the soil,, in summer, greatly exceeds 
that of the air. At Albany, N. Y., the temperature of the soil 
rises to 100 '^ F. fivQ feet below the surface, and to 140 '^ half 
an inch below. (Johnston.) But this temperature varies accord- 
ing to the color and quality of the soil, the .evaporation, the 
amount of water it contains, the nature of the subsoil, &c. This 
internal heat is of great importance in practical farming; a warm, 
dry soil allowing the seeds to sprout early in the spring ; forcing 
forward the plant, as in a hot-b^<l ; regulating the .amount of 
dew deposited; controlling early and late night frosts; and 
probably influencing, favorably for the farmer, the. growth of 
parasitic fungi, such as rust, mildetv, dr. It also causes.manures 
to act, and produces other beneficial effects, such as electrical 
currents. It can be regulated and increased by artificial means, 
but chiefly by proper drainage. 

133. Seeds require a given temperature of air and soil for 
healthful germination; various plants differing in this respect: 
some requiring a much higher temperature than others. On 
this point, the following laws have been laid down : (a.) ^Mien 
the temperature at noon is given, (other thii:igs being equal,) the 
time necessary for the development of a seed may be ascer- 
tained, (b,) If the period of germination be given, the meridian 
temperature of the country during the period may be deter- 
mined, (c,) When the seed fractifies in the same year in which 
it is planted, the proper time for putting it into the ground is 
when the meridian temperature is such as to produce vegetation 
in the shortest period, (d,) An increase of temperature beyond 
a certain point, does not expedite the vegetative process. 

The following table has been drawu up from actual experiment. 



44 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



(J. T. Plummer;) but it would have been more perfect if the tempera- 
ture of the soil had also been recorded: 



.£ 


^ 62 = P. 


03 

"3 


76 


C3 


88 


To 


51 


rd 


59 


o 


74 


o 


80 


D 


60 


19 


62 


I. 


55 


E 


60 




70 


63 






"O 


77 


S 


54 


a 


60 


CO 


75 
61 


% 


61 


t& 


63 




67 


a 


79 


<u 


58 

L 81 



Lima Beans, soaktd, require 
do 8. - - 

do 
Peas, 
do 
do 

do ... 

Bishop's early Peas, 

do do 

Radishes, s. 
do 8. 

do s, 

Ouion seed, s, 
do 8. 

Drum-head Cabbage, - 
do 8. 

do 8. - 

Red Cabbage s. 
Beet, 8. 

do - . - 

do 8. 

do 8. 

Cucumber, 
do 



20 

7 

7 

19 

13 

11 

14 

10 

8 

12 

7 

3 

15 

9 

12 

6 

5 

6 

11 

22 

8 

5 

30 

7 



daAS. 



It is stated that at Albany, N. Y., of Indian com planted 
■when the temperature of the soil was but 45 "^ in the spring, 
the seed all rotted; but when planted, when the temperature 
was about 60 ° , it vegetated. 

This subject is one of great importance to the farmer; large 
quantities of seed and labor are annually lost in consequence of 
inattention to such particulars ; and there is yet much to learn 
that is valuable in this regard. The proper time for seed-sowing 
may be accurately ascertained by means of experiment ; and by 
the use of the theiTQometer and meteorological tables. 

134. As is well known, a ray of the sun's hght, consists of 
seven rays of different colors, which, uniting, form the ordinary 
white light. But, besides this, the sun's rays contain tliree dif- 
ferent kinds of rays : (a,) a ray of light ; (b,) of heat ; (c,) of 
chemical agency. The effect of these on vegetation is essen- 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 45 

tially different. Yellow light, (a,) impedes germination, and 
accelerates that decomposition of carbonic acid, which produces 
wood and woody tissues. Under its uifluence, leaves are small 
and wood short jointed. Red light, (b,) canies heat, and is 
favorable to geraiination if abundance of water is present, in- 
creases evaporation, supports the flowering quality, and improves 
fruit. Under its influence, color is diminished, and leaves are 
scorched. Blue light, (c,) (also called chemical action, or ac- 
tinism,) accelerates germination, and causes rapid growth. Under 
its influence, plants become weak and long jointed. (Hunt.) 
These three agencies exist in different proportions in the sun- 
beam in the spring, summer, and autumn. The blue, (c,) is 
greater in spring; the yellow, (a,) in summer. The blue, 
(chemical ray,) is less in the fall ; and then the heating ray, red, 
(b,) predominates. Thus the sun's rays differ in their properties 
at different seasons of year; and are adapted to the peculiar 
needs of the plant at the time. Still further, the proportion of 
these agencies vary in different latitudes and climates. Daguer- 
reotypes, depending on these principles, are poor in England, 
better in France, superior in JNew York, but best in the Noith- 
westem States. Probably the chemical rays are more abounding 
in the above proportion, but there is yet much to learn on this 
subject; and it is not unlikely that the many differences known 
to exist in animal and vegetable hfe in these countries will be 
found to be more or less controlled by these peculiarities of the 
sun's rays. Gardeners have attempted to make practical use of 
these facts by means of colored glasses, but, apparently, without 
much success. 

135. Rain is necessary for the life of most plants. In those 
countries where rain never falls, vegetation is either wanting, or 
— depending on dews — very limited. In other countries, ^^•here 
it only falls at a certain season, leaving many months at a time 
without a shower, plants only grow during the rains, and are 
parched up and disappear dming the rest of the year. The 



46 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

amouat of rain tliat falls in a year is governed by known law?. 
It varies in different parts of the same country, but is neai-ly the 
same, each year, in any given locality. 

Rain is measured, for rnoteoiological purposes, by ivchex. The instru- 
ment used is called a Rain Guage, ana sometimes a Pluviometer. They 
are of various forms, but all acting upon the same principle — that of re- 
ceiving the rain into a vessel of known size, with a graduated measurer, 
divided into inches and parts of inches. The one generally used in the 
United States is known as the " Conical Rain Guage of DeWitt" — 
equally simple and pei feet. It consists of a copper cone, with a perfora- 
ted cap to prevent evaporation. It is fixed on a post, in a situation 
sheltered from winds, about 8 feet fro'n the ground. The measurement 
is made by putting down perpindicularly to the bottom of the guage, a 
Qieasuring stick, graduated in inches and their decimals. 

136. In Agriculture, rain is important as regards (a^) the 
season, and (h^) the mode in which it falls, whether in heavy 
storms, with long intervals between tliem, or frequently, in small 
quantities at a time ; and (c,) the direction from which it comes. 
If rain chiefly fell late in the Fall, in Winter, or in early Spring, 
veo-etation would receive but little benefit from it. If it fell 
continuously at seed and harvest time, it would preclude cultiva- 
tion ; if it fell in heavy storms, Avith long intervals between them, 
plants would be alternately forced forwards, atid retarded. 
Where rain is very constant, as in the mountains of England 
atid Scotlancl, grass-growing and cattle-raising are substituted foi- 
o-rain. Consequently, the annnal amount of rain is of less im- 
portance than the frequency of it, and the seasons of the year 
over which it is spread. 

The annual amount of rains, averages : — 

Under the tropics of the New World, - 115 inches. 

« " « " " Old World, - - 76 " 
Within the tropics generally, - - - 95^ " 

In the United States, - - - - 45 « 

Europe, 31| " 

Generally over the world, - - - - 34f " 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 47 

Mucli more rain falls annucilly in tlie United States than in 
Great Britain, if a few mountain clistricts in the latter be except- 
ed ; but the mode of falling is different in the two countrieF. 

The following table will serve as an illustration of this subject, 
although being di'awn from single years, it is not strictly accu- 
rate as regards each locality : — 



PLACE. 


Rainy Days. 


Inches. 


Snowy Diiys. 


luL-heF. 


Truro, - - England, 


152 


50 






Exeter, - - '• 


150 


33 






Becbington, - " 


185 


35 






Greenwich, - " 


167 


28 






Liverpool, - " 


190 


31 






Hightield, - - " 


213 


25 






Whitehaven, - " 


200 


45 






Durham, - - " 


152 


21 






Newcastle, - " 


140 


30 






Saco, Maine, - U. States, 




44 






Cambridge, Mass., " 




56 






Mendon, - " " 


*81i 




26 




Worcester, " " 


88" 


37 


24 


Gl 


New Yoi-k, N. Y., 


57 


39 


8 


31 


Savannah, Geo., " 


72 


59 






Natches, Miss., " 


87 


75 






Ann Arbor, Mich., " 


79 


23 


33 





• Average of 15 jcurs 

In England, more rain falls on the West than on the East 
side of the Island ; and the practical etlect is that more green 
crops, which require more moisture than grain, are grown on 
the former ; such crops making a larger return on the western 
side. 

137. Eveiy inch of rain fjilling annually is equal to a weight 
of rather more than 112 tons on each imperial acre ; so that the 
mean annual weight of rain falling in the United States, exceeds 
the mean amount of rain on the eastern coast of England, by 
several hundreds of tons per acre. 

138. Another important consideration is (a,) the season of 
the year in which rain chiefly falls ; and (b,) the diistance of 



48 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

of time wliicli usually intervenes between one day of rain and 
another. 

Thus, in 1841, according to the Army Meteorological Be- 
gister, there fell at Detroit, Mich., and New Orleans, La., the 
following inches of rain and snow in each quarter of the year, in 
so many days: 



DETROIT. 


I. n. m. 1 IV. 


In.orleans 


a 


m. 


IV. 


Inches, 
Days, 


5.36 7.87 7.84 5.99 
25 1 20 19 30 


Inches, 31.50 9.90 7.17 
Days, 30 3? 28 


11.96 
4? 



Thus we see, that in Detroit, during this year, of 27.06 inches 
of rain, 11.35 or less than half fell during the six -winter months; 
leaving 15.71 inches for the use of vegetation; while in New 
Orleans, 43.46 inches, or nearly three quarters of the whole 
year's supply, fell during the winter months, leaving only 17.07 
for the six summer months. So that, while there is much less 
rain in Michigan, it is more equally distributed. 

139. The yield of grains, and root crops depends upon the 
mode in which the rain falls, whether in light showeiB, and 
dense fogs ; or in heavy storms ; and at the particular time of 
veo-etating or flowering. These particulars again vary according 
to the soil, whether it is sand or clay, drained or undrained. 
Thus oats appeal' to demand a constantly damp atmosphere ; 
buckwheat and peas light showers while flowering ; while wheat 
is apt to be injured by rust, if much warm rain falls at the time 
it is ripening. The size and average vreight of stock also seem 
to depend upon the mode in which rain falls. The health of 
sheep is certainly dependent on this peculiarity of the climate ; 
and the naturalization of varieties probably depends upon it. 

Dr. P. A. Brown, of Philadelphia, observes " that if a line be drawn 
diagonally tbrough the United States from the South-east corner of New 
Hampshire to Texas, it will be fornd, that the woolly sheep, {Merino 
variety,) will breed and thrive everywhere North-west of it, and the 
hairy sheep, (long-woolled varieties,) everywhere South-east of this line; 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 49' 

but that neither will thrive on the other sides, respectively, of that line, 
nor will they if the species are crossed." The same peculiarities are 
found ill other parts of the world. The cause is not yet satisfactorily 
ascertained, but is undoubtedly more or less dependent on climate. 

140. Tlirough. a perfectly diy argillo-calcareoiis soil, in a 
state of fallow, rain descends in one day six times the depth of 
the quantity fallen. Thus a fall of 4-lOths of an inch will sink 
in a day through nearly 2^ inches. ( Gasparin.) 

141. The power of the soil to absorb and retain moisture, is 
practically, an important consideration, and greatly influences 
the effects of the annual quantity of rain falling. The amount 
of water which a cubic foot of various soils can contain before 
they allow any of it to run off wsis determined by M. Schubler : 

A cubic foot of 

Siliceous sand held of water 27.3 lbs. 

Calcareous sand " 31.8 " 

Sandy clay " 38.8 " 

Loamy clay " 41.4 " 

Stiffclay, or brick earth, " 45.4 *♦ 

Arable soil " 46.8 " 

Garden mould " 48.4 " 

142. The relative degree of rapidity with whicli rain water 
is evaporated, was also ascertained. Of 200 parts of each earth 
exposed for four hours, on a thin surface in a closed room, at 
65f Fahrenheit^ there was an evaporation of absorbed water as 
follows : 

Siliceous sand lost 88.4 parts in 100 parts of absorbed water. 
Calcareous sand " 75.9 « « « « « 



Sand clay " 


52.0 


Loamy clay " 


45.7 


Stiff clay, 


35.9 


Arable soil " 


32.0 


Garden mould " 


24.3 



It is readily perceived how different must be the effect of 
dry weather upon crops grown in these various soils. 
4 



50 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



143. Wlieat, and probably otber grains, vary in their quality 
and nutritive powers according to the warmth and relative dry- 
ness of the climate. Sir Humphrey Davy found in 1,000 parts 
of seed wheat in its natural state : 













or Starch 


Gluten. 


Total. 


From Middlesex, England, 


765 


190 


955 


Thick-skinned Scicilian Wheat, 


725 


230 


955 


Thin-skinned Scicilian Wheat, - 


722 


239 


961 


Wheat from Poland, - - . 


750 


200 


950 


North American Wheat, - - - 


750 


.225 


975 



Thus the gluten of wheat^ from the warm and dry climate of 
Sicily, far exceeded that of English wheat; while in wheat from 
the United States, the starch and mucilage, (the heat-gimng 
constituents,) are nearly equal to those of England, and the 
gluten, (the flesh-forming constituent,) is far superior; or, in 
other words, the last is much more nutritious than the first. 

" The real value of wheat and of tlie other cereals and bread stuffs 
depends mainly upon the proportion of {gluten and albumen which they, 
contain, their starch, glucose, and dextrine, or gum, not being considered 
nutritive."— fZ. C. Beck.) 

According to Prof. Beck, American wheat flour shows the following 
comparative analysis: 

Water, - - 

Gluten, .... 

Starch, .... 

Glucose, Dextrine, &c, 

144. The quantity of water contained in wheat gi'eatly effecte 
its value, as regards, (a.,) keeping ; (h,) the quantity of bread 
it yields. 

(A.) Large amounts of Western flour are annually damaged 
Iby a chemical change which takes place, owing to the water 
<;ontained in it. This water amounts, on an average from 24 to 
26 lbs. in every barrel of common flour. The total annual loss 
to the United States, from this cause alone, was estimated, in 



11.75 to 14.05 per cent. 

9.90 to 14.36 
66.00 to 70.20 

4.96 to 11.05 " 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 51 

1847, at from $3,000,000 to $5,000,000. It is not only the 
sourness whicli injures flour; but the gluten, and therefore the 
nutritive quality, is actually diminished. In Poland, and in 
some parts of the United Stiites, wheat is dried before grinding, 
in which case, no change takes place. As much as 18 lbs. of 
water have been expelled from a barrel of Ohio flour. 

(B.) Wheat grown in dry climates yields more bread than 
when grown in wet climates. A quarter of English wheat has 
yielded 13 lbs. more bread than the same quantity of Scotch 
wheat. 

Wheat grown in New Jersey, lower Pennsylvania, the South- 
em part of Ohio, Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia, 
icontains less water, and more nutritive matter than that from 
the more northern States Experiments have proved that 
manures produce an effect similar to climate in raising the 
nutritive value of wheat, in proportion as they contain nitrogen ; 
and it is not improbable that the manure received from the air 
in dry chmates has an especial effect in this respect. 

145. "It is impossible, when we are examining these facts, 
not to feel how closely the meteorology of a neighborhood influ- 
ences even the composition of the grain which it produces. The 
English miller is well aware of these things ; he mixes with the 
wheat produced in the damper districts of that Island the dry 
wheat produced in lands where the mean temperature is much 
higher, the rain-fall considerably less, and, in consequence, more 
free from moisture. Such facts/too, are of practical use to the 
agriculturist, for he well knows how, by improved systems of 
cultivation, the obstacles presented by even climate are over- 
come." (C. W. Johnson.) 

There is no reason for believing tbat the moon has any influence on 
the weather, or the ciojis, except as imparting light and heat. There 
are many old superstitions still popular on this subject. It has been 
closely investigated both in Gtrninny for fifty years, and in Enf^jland for 
twenty, and no connection between the moon and the weather could I e 



52 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

detected. In every phase, the moon is the same to^ us, as a material 
agent, except as regards the power of reflected light ; and no one sup- 
]ioses that moonlight produces wet or dry. Why, then, should that 
])oint in the moon's course, when it begins to emerge from the sun's 
rajs, have any influence on our weather? Twice in each revolution* 
when in conjunction with the sun at new, and in opposition to it at the 
full, an atmospheric spring-tide may be supposed to exist, and to exert 
some soit of influence. But the existence of any such tide at all is 
denied, and the absence of fluctuations of the barometric pressure favora 
the negative of this proposition. Night-feeding birds and animals, 
liowever, and oysters, grow fat or thin, according to the stale of the moon 
and tides. In Kentucky, horses are said to be subject to disease of ihe 
eye, amounting to blindness, during the period of full moon, which is 
not the case when the moon does not shine. Dark stables are the reme- 
dy ; and the philosophy of the disease is easily understood. 

In conclusion, every farmer is recommended to procure and use a good 
Barometer. It will, at all times warn him of the approach of rain and 
wind storms ; and after a little experience, he will find no difficulty in 
deciding upon the weather for twelve or twenty-four hours in advance. 
When he goes to bed at night, he can make a shrewd guess whether it 
■will rain or not in the morning; and during harvest he will be forewarned, 
and can prepare for rain, and thus often save his hay and grain from 
damage. At sea, a barometer is now of essential necessity. Mr. Iled- 
tield, of New York, has lately pointed out the great service it will render 
to those navigating our large lakes ; and to the farmer, it is quite as 
useful. As agriculturists become more familiar with the barometer, they 
•will cease to put faith in the weather-superstitions of the dark ages ; and 
will find innumerable useful and interesting practical questions de- 
cided by it. There are two kinds in common use, the perpendicular or 
circular Barometer, depending for its action upon Mercury (Quicksilver); 
and the ^ncroiJ Barometer — a French invention — depending on the ac- 
tion of gas in a thin metal case. The first is the most complete and 
expensive, but the latter is quite sufiicient for ordinary purposes, is not 
easily damaged, and is much more compact. It requires, however, to 
be occasionally compared with a standard mercury barometer. 



CHAPTER V. 



FORMATION OF PLANTS. 

146. It has been already stated that plants are formed of or- 
ganic and inorganic elements, which they receive from the soil 
and air. [See § 81-93.) The living plant possesses the power 
of receiving into itself these bodies, of changing or digesting 
them, and of re-anvanging them in a different way, so as to pro- 
duce new substances. In the same manner a new born animal 
swallows milk, and changes the milk into blood, bones, muscles, 
brain, &c. The perfect tree is only air, water, and a portion of 
the soil in which it is growing ; as the animal, a few months' 
old, is only milk in a difierent shape. If the soil does not con- 
tain all the materials requisite to fonn a plant, it either wiU not 
gi'ow at all, or it will grow unhealthily. 

147. A perfect plant consists of three parts, (a,) a root^ which 
remains in the soil, (b,) a trunk or stem which branches into 
the air, and (c,) leaves. Each of these is differently formed, 
generally contains different proportions of the elements, and is 
endowed with a peculiar function. 

148. The stems of plants differ in their construction, some 
being much more simple than others. The stem of a tree con- 
sists of three pai-ts : (a,) the pith, in the centre ; (b,) the wood 
smToundiug the pith ; and (c,) the barks which cover the whole. 
The pith consists of soft celular tissue (or parenchyma,) which 
is at first goiged vrith the nourishing juices of the plant, but 



54 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

wliicL in time become exhausted, leaving tLe older pith dry and 
light, or mere empty cells, which are of no further use to the 
plant. The wood consists of woody fibre, among which vessels 
are more or less copiously mingled, capable of carrying liquids 
up and down between the root and the leaves. The branches 
are only a continuation of the stem, and have a similar structure. 
The bark consists of three portions ; (a,) the liber which lies 
next the wood ; (h,) the outer bark, composed of two pails, 1, 
the green or cellular layer, 2 the corky layer, and (c,) the epi- 
dermis or skin which invests the whole. 

149. The root, immediately on leaving the trunk or stem, 
has also a similar structure ; but as the root tapers away, the 
pith gradually disappears, the bark also thins out, the wood 
softens, till the white tendrils, of which its extremities are com- 
posed, consist only of a colorless, spongy mass, full of pores, (or 
minute holes,) but in which no distinction of parts can be per- 
ceived. In this sjiongy mass, the vessels or tubes which descend 
through the stem and root, lose themselves, and by them these 
spongy extremities are connected with the leaves. 

150. A leaf is an expansion of the stem. Like the stem 
therefore, the leaf is made up of two distinct parts, the cellular 
and the woody. The leaf is a highly organized structure, con- 
taining innumerable rounded globules, cells, and veins, regularly 
arranged. It is also full of pores through which air can enter. 

151. In a growing plant, the sap enters by the extremities of 
the roots, (spongioles,) ascends through the vessels of the wood, 
and is passed over the inner surface of the leaf by the fibres 
which the wood contains. Thence, by the vessels in the green 
of the leaf, it is returned to the bark, and through the vessels of 
the inner bark it descends to the root. 



CHAPTER VI. 



WHEAT. —(Tritkum.) 

152. There are three kinds of grain on which mankind prin- 
cipally feed, (a,) Wheat, (b,) Rice, (c,) Indian Com or Maize. 
Of these, Wheat is chiefly confined to the colder regions of the 
world; and, in the United States, is second in importance to 
Maize. It belongs to the botanical family of Grasses. It is not 
found in a wild state, and the country in which it originated is 
unknown. 

Wheat has lately been produced by the continued cultivation of a plant 
■wild on ihe shores of the Mediten-anean, called Mgilops, This is no 
more extraordinary than the origin of most of our garden vegetables. 

Wheat grows in a great variety of chmates. In Europe, the 
polar hmits are stated to be as follows : — 



Menn Temperaturo. (Fahr ) of 



TEAR. 



Scotland, (Ross-shire,) 

Norway, (Drontheim,) 

Sweden, 

Russia, (St. Petersburgh,) 



58« 
64 
62 
60^1; 



46" 
40 
40 
38 



35'^ 
25 
25 
16 



59 
59 
61 



The iso-thermal curve of 57° 2', which appears to be the 
minimum temperature requisite for the cultivation of wheat 
passes, in North America, through the uninhabited regions of 
the Hudson's Bay coimtry. At Cumberland House, lat. 54° 
N., long. 102° 20' West, this grain is successfully raised. The 



56 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



possible cultivation of wheat towards the Equator oscillates be- 
tween lat. 20° and 25"''. It is grown successfully in Chili, and 
Rio de la Plata. In southern Pera it gTows at a height of 
8,500 feet; and at the foot of the volcano of Arequipo, at a 
height of 10,600 feet. 

The introduction of this grain into the United States was in 
1602, when it was sown on the Elizabeth Islands in Massachu- 
setts. In 1611 it was sown in Virginia; and in 1648 many- 
hundred acres of it were cultivated in that colony ; though it 
was aftei-wards neglected to give place to Tobacco. It was in- 
troduced into the Mississippi Valley in 17 18, but owing to the 
character of the soil and cHmate, succeeded badly, running to 
straw instead of grain; yet in 1746 it became an article of ex- 
port from the "Wabash to New Orleans. The principal wheat- 
producing States ai-e 





BUSHELS. 


POPULATION. 




1840. 1 1850. 


1840. 


1850. 


New York, - - - 


12,286,418 


13,121,498 


2,428.921 


3,097,394 


New Jersey, - - 


774,203 


1,601,190 


373,306 


489,555 


Pennsylvania, - - 


13,213,077 


15,367,691 


1,724,033 


2,311,786 


Delaware, - - - 


315,165 


482,511 


78,085 


91,536 


Maryland, - - - 


3,345,783 


4,494,680 


470,019 


583,035 


^''iro-inia, - - - 


10,109,716 


11,232,616 


1,239,797 


1,421,661 


Ohio, ----- 


16,571,661 


14,487,351 


1,519,467 


1,980,408 


Kentucky, - - - 


4,803,152 


2,140,822 


779,828 


982,405 


Michigan, - - - - 


2,157,108 


4,925,889 


212,267 


397,654 


Indiana, - - - - 


4,049,375 


6,214,458 


68.5,866 


988,416 


Illinois, - - - - 


3.335,393 


9,414,575 


476,183 


851,470 


Missoui-i, - - - 


1,037,386 


2,981,652 


383,702 


682,043 


Wisconsin, - - - 


212,116 


4,286,131 


30,945 


305,191 


Iowa, - - - - 


154,693 


1,530,581 


4.3.112 


192,214 



During these ten years there was a gain on the whole crop 
of the United States of 15,645,378 bushels; while the crops of 
New England decreased from 2,014,000 to 1,090,000 bushels. 
In 1849, the Avheat crop of the United States amounted to 
100,503,899 bushels. It is estimated that one bushel of seed 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 67 

is used for eveiy ten busliels produced ; and tliat an average of 
three bushels is annually used by every individual of the popu- 
lation. 

1 53. Botanists distingiush eleven species or sub-species, viz : — 



1. 


Triticum cestivwn, 


Spring Wheat. 


2. 


a 


hybernum, 


- Winter Wheat. 


3. 


u 


compositum, - 


Egj-ptian Wheat, 


4. 


u 


turgidum, - 


- Turgid Wheat. 


6. 


u 


Polonicum, - 


Poland Wheat. 


6. 


u 


Spelia, 


- Spelt Wheat. 


7. 


u 


monocuccum, - 


One-gi-ained Wheat. 


8. 


u 


comp actum, 


- Compact Wheat. 


9. 


u 


atratum, 


Dark-spiked Wheat. 


10. 


u 


hordeifornic, 


- Barley-like Wheat. 


11. 


u 


Zea, - 


Far Wheat. 



154. Of these, however, some may only be varieties. In the 
United States, two only, the Spring and Winter Wheat, are 
generally grown ; though it is believed that Spelt may occa- 
sionally be met with as a spring wheat. The latter, which is 
the hardiest of the family, is cultivated in the south of Europe 
and Germany ; and is known by its almost soUd straw, and the 
chaff adhering to the gi-ain so as to be separated with great dif- 
ficulty. It may be grown on poor soils, but yields an inferior 
flour in small quantities. The others have no peculiar merit. 

155. Sx^ring Wheat was known in England as early as 1666, 
but has been cultivated only to a small extent there ; and not to 
a much greater one in Scotland. In the United States, it does 
not appear to be as popular as foraierl}^, except in districts, wher« 
Fall Wheat is apt to be killed during winter. As a general thing, 
the grain is not as large, contains more gluten, makes flour of a 
different cpiality and flavor, and brings a lower price in the 
market. Sir John Sinclair informs us that from 1767 to 1812 
it was a practice with the best Scotch farmers to sow Fall Wheat 



58 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

in Spring, from Febniaiy to April, though March was general- 
ly the favorite month. The real Spring Wlieat does not ap- 
pear to have been generally known in that country till the be- 
giniug of this century. Though sown in April or May it ripen- 
ed as early as winter sown wheat. It was not, however so pro- 
ductive as winter wheat so^vn either in Winter or Spring, and 
the ears were shorter. There are many nominal varieties in the 
United States, the best probably being the Italian, the Siberian 
Bald, or Tea Wheat, and the Black Sea Wheat. Of this last 
there are again two varieties, the red and the white chaff ; both 
of which are bearded. It is not known that the practice of 
sowing Fall Wheat in Spring has ever prevailed in this country, 
though there is no apparent reason why it should not succeed 
as well as in Scotland, and be profitable in certain localities. 
In the Noi-thera States, it is considered important that Spring 
Wheat should be sown as early as the season will permit.. 
The soil may be lighter than for the Fall variety ; it ought to 
be in good condition ; and is generally better if it has been 
plowed, and laid up dry in tlie Fall. From one and a half to 
two bushels is the proper quantity of seed per acre ; more gen- 
erally the latter. The after processes of harvesting and thrash- 
ing are similar to Fall Wheat. 

156. The varieties of Fall Wheat are very numerous, differ- 
ing not only in appearance, but also in constituents, in adapta- 
tion to soil and chmate, in hardiness as regards disease and in- 
sects, and in productiveness. There appears to be one fact as- 
certained regarding them, which is, that they are constantly un- 
dergoing change in their relative productiveness. A new varie- 
ty will be introduced into a given locality, and for a few years 
will succeed better than any other, after which it begins gradu- 
ally to deteriorate in the qualities which at first recommended 
it. The ancient varieties appear to have been much inferior to 
some in the ]>resent day. There are four distinct divisions, (a,) 
White, (b,) Red, (c,) Bald, (d,) Boarded : the Red being gen- 



AGRICULTURAI. TEXT-BOOK. 59 

eralhj liardlor, but coarser tlian the White ; and the same may 
be said of the Bearded as compared Avith the Bald ; but in 
other respects there is no material practical difterence. 

General Harmon, of Wlicatland, Monroe County, N". Y., who has de- 
voted a long life to the study ol and experiments upon Wheat, in 1844 
gave the following as the best varieties known in the United States: 

1. While Flint, probably introduced from the Black Sea into New 
Jersey, in 1814. Its peculiarities are, (a,) strong straw ; (6,) solid 
grain with thin bran ; (c,) the chaff adheres to the grain so that it does 
not readily shell out ; {<!,) it is little affected by frost; (c,) it has with- 
stood the Hessian Fly better than any other now cultivated. Its usual 
yield is from twenty to twenty-five bushels per acre, but it has produced 
fifty-four bushels to the acre. 2. Improved White Flint. It is superior 
to the last in the size of the berry, the thinness of the bran, and the 
weight pei' bushel. 3. White Provence, introduced from France, (a,) 
it grows rapidly, yielding much straw; (6,) ripens four or five days 
earlier than the common varieties ; (c,) withstands cold, and is not in- 
jured by insects ; but the straw is soft and it is apt to fall down. It is 
hold, berry very large and white ; yielding flour well and of good qual- 
ity. 3. Old Red Chaff, originated in Southern Pennsylvania. It is a 
bald wheat, with red chaff but a white grain ; and in other respects is 
similar to the last. On new uak lands it succeeds admirably, but on old 
lands it is subject to rust, mildew, insects, and winter-kibing. 4. Keri' 
tuclcy White Bearded, {Hutchinson, Bearded Flint, Canada Flint,) a 
white chaff, bearded wheat. 5. Indiana Wheat, originated in Indiana, 
a white chaff, bald wheat ; peculiarly adapted to strong soils. 6. Velvet 
Beard, or Crate Wheat ; introduced from England twenty-five years 
ago : a red chaff, bearded, large berried wheat. It is very hardy, not 
apt to be thrown out by frost, nor injured by insects. 7. Wheatlaivd 
Red, originated from the Virginia May, by Gon'l Harmon : it is red 
chaff, bald wheat, and not apt to rust. 8. Golden Drop, an English 
variety. 9. Mediterranean, introduced from the South of Europe fifteen 
years since. It is a light red chaff, bearded, berry red and long, bran 
thick, and flour inferior ; but it is not injured by insects, and ripens ear- 
ly. 10. i?/«eS<(m, cultivated in Virginia about fifty years since, but 
now generally grown in the Northern States. Formerly it was a red 
■wheat, but it is now changed to a beautiful white. It is very produc- 
tive. 

This list might be much extended, but it could not be of any practi- 
cal utility. 



60 AGRICULTUP-AT TEXT-BOOK. 

157. Tlie qualities desirable in Wieat may be thus shortly 
enumerated : Straw of medium length and size, not apt to fall 
down, to be attacked by insects or rust, nor killed by frost or 
wet ; able to stool out or tiller, so that each gi-ain gives several 
roots and stalks. The heads long, well filled ; the chaff ad- 
hering to the grain so that it does not easily shell : the kernel 
white, flinty, solid and large, with thin bran, and yielding a 
white homogeneous flour in large quantity of first quality ; the 
skin elastic, not breaking up into small particles in gTinding, and 
fining the flour with specks of bran so small as to be incapable 
of seperation ; not apt to sprout if necessarily exposed to wet 
after harvesting ; germinating rapidly, and growing steadily af- 
ter sowing. Any wheat that united all these qualities would 
be nearly perfect. 

158. Wheat is expected to weigh sixty pounds to the Amer- 
ican bushel. The crop varies from eight to sixty bushels to the 
acre; the average throughout the United States is between 
twelve and fifteen bushels per acre. Occasionally a bushel of 
wheat wiU weigh as high as sixty-six pounds. 

The American Bushel contains, ... 2,150.42 cubic inches. 

The English (Imperial) Bushel contains - 2,218.192 

The English quarter of Wheat is eight Imperial Bushels of 70 lbs. 

each, equal to 9}^ American Bushels of 60 lbs. each. "Wheat is sold in 

the States by the Bushel of 60 lbs. lu England by the quarter of 560 lbs. 

159. Ultimate analysis of Wheat grown at Bechelbronn, 
1837 . — (BoussingauU.) 



Carbon, 

Hydrogen, 

Oxygen, 

Nitrogen, 

Ash, 



GRUK. 




STRAW. 


46.10 


48.48 


48.38 


5.80 


5.41 


5.21 


43.40 


38.79 


39.09 


2.29 


0.35 


0.35 


2.41 


6.97 


6.97 



100.00 100.00 100.00 

160. The composition of Wheat varies gi-eatly according to 



GRAIN. 


STRAW. 


225 


20 


240 


29 


96 


240 


690 


32 


26 


90 


400 


2870 


50 


37 


40 


170 


10 


30 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 61 

many circumstances, sucli as (a,) tlie soil; (b,) tlie manure 
used ; (c,) the variety ; (d^) the climate ; (e,) the time it is 
haiTCsted, &c. The following analysis by Sprengel may be 
taken as an average. 100,000 parts dry wheat contain 1177 
parts of ash or inorganic matter; the same quantity of wheat 
straw contains 3518 pai'ts of ash. They consist of the folloAv- 
ing substances : 

Potash, ... 

Soda, - . - . 

Lime, - . - 

Magnesia, 

Alumina, ... 

Silica, 

Sulphuric Acid, ... 

Phosphoric Acid 

Chlorine, - - 

1777 3518 

161. Analysis of the organic, or combustible portion. 100 
parts of wheat in its natural state contain. (Gregory.) 

Albumen, - - - - - -3.0 

Gluten, - - - - - - 9.9 

Starch, -..-.. 55 7 

Gum, Dextrine, Pectine and Sugar, - - - 4.6 

Fibre and Husk, - ♦ - - -11.9 

82.31 

162. Or according to another analysis (Gregory,) the parts 
may be thus divided : 

Water, ----... 12.9 

Organic Matter, ----.. g5_2 
Ash, .--..... 190 

163. The influence of variety of seed and mode of culture 
are sho^vn by the following results of the examination by Bous- 
singault of several varieties of wheat grown in the Botanic 
Garden at Paris : 



62 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 





Husk or ISiaii 


Water ui lliv 


Flour 111 the 


Uluteu, &c. Ill 




in the grain. 


Flour, per 


grain, per 


the Flour, per 




per cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


cent. 


Cape Wheat, - - 


19 


81 


7.0 


20.6 


Russian Wheat, - 


18 


82 


6.4 


24.8 


Dantzig Wheat, - - 


24 


76 


7.3 


25.8 


Red Foix Wheat, - 


18.5 


81.5 


9.3 


26.1 


Ban-el Wheat, - - 


22 


78 


8.8 


27.7 


Winter WHieat,- - 


3S 


62 


14.1 


33.0 



164. The time of cutting affects the weight of produce, as 
well as the relative proportions of flour, bran, and gluten. 
Thus from three equal patches of the same field of wheat in 
Yorkshire, cut twenty days befoi-e the crop was ripe, ten days 
before ripeness, and when fully ripe, the produce w^as in grain* 
(Johnston.) 

20 daysbefore. 10 days before. Fully ripe. 

166 lbs. 220 lbs. 209 lbs. 

and the per centage of flour, sharps, and bran, yielded by each) 
and of water and gluten in the flour was as follows : 

When cut. in the grain, per cent. in the flour, per cenf.. 



Water. Gluten. 
15.7 9.3 

155 9.9 
15.9 9.6 



Flour. Sharps. Bran. 
20 davs before it was ripe, 74.7 7.2 17.5 
10 days before, - - 79.1 5.5 13.2 
Fully ripe, - - 72.2 11.0 16.0 

When cut a fortnight before it is ripe, therefore, the entire 
produce of the grain is greater, the yield of flour is larger, and 
of bran considerably less, while the proportion of gluten con- 
tained in the flour appears also to be in favor of that which wa^ 
reaped before the wheat was fully ripe. 

165. Bran, as is well known, con.stitutes, notwithstanding its 
dry appearance, a very excellent food, and is fattening for stock. 
Used in bread, it adds much to the nourishing qualities of it, es- 
pedaUy in the case of children. The average composition of it 
is represented as follows : (Johnston.) 

Water, .... - 13.1 percent. 

Albumen, (coagulated!,) ... - 19.3 " 

Oil, 4.7 " 

Husk and a little starcb, .... 55.6 " 
Saline matter, (asL,) * . . - 7.3 " 



53.00 


per cent. 


- 1.00 


" 


14.90 


" 


- 3.60 


" 


9. 70 


« 


- 0.50 


« 


13.90 


It 


- 3.40 


tt 



AGRlCtLTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 63 

The following is a more minute analysis of Bran from a Soft 
French Wheat, grown in 1848 : (Millon.) 

Starch, dextiine and sugar, ... 

Sugar of Liquorice, - . - . 

Gluten, -.-... 
Fatty matter, .... 

Woody matter, . . - . - 

Salts, (inorganic,) - - - - 

Water, -.-..- 
Incrusting matter and aromatic principles, 

100.00* 

A large portion of the inorganic matter in Bran is Phosphate 
of Magnesia, a very valuable salt both in food and for manure. 
Common bran, however, owing to the flour adhering to it, is 
generally much richer than the above analyses. 

166. The following is another view of the constituents of 
wheat, being the extremes of fourteen analyses of as many dif- 
ferent varieties, lately made by Peligot : 

Water, - - - 13.2 to 15.2 per cent. 

Fatty matters, - - - - - 1.0 to 1.9 " 

Nitrogenous matters insoluble in water, - 8.1 to 19.8 " 

Soluble Nitrogenous matter, (albumen,) - 1.4 to 2.4 " 

Dextrine, - " - - - 5.4 to 10.5 " 

Starch, .-..,_ 55.1 to 67,1 « 

Cellulo.se, (woody mattpr,) - - - 1.4 to 2.3 " 

Saline matter, - - - - 1.4 to 1.9 " 



•The reader is referred for further information on tlie nutritious value of Bran to 
an Essay by Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, published in Edinburgh, Scotland ; and to the Re- 
port of Prof L. C. Beck in the Patent Office Report for 1849, p. 55. Dr. Daubeny 
observes " that according to the experiments of Magendie, animals fed upon fine 
flour died in a few weeks, while they thrived upon the whole meal brend. Brown 
bread, therefore, should be adopted not merely on aprincipleof economy, but also an 
providing more of those ingredients which are i)erhaps dctik;ieut iu tlie finer parta of 
the flour." 



64 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

167. The coinposition of wlieat may, therefore, be rougUy 
stated, as : 

Heat-producing constituents, Starch, Sugar, Gum, - 50 to 60 per cent 
Flesh-forming " Gluten and Albumen, 16 to 18 " 

Water, - " 10 to 18 

Useless, " woody fibre, - 22 to 26 

Inorganic, " various salts, - 2 to 4 " 

168. In damp climates, such as that of Great Britain, the 
grain of wheat is generally larger and phmrper than in hot, dry 
climates ; but analyses show that the small grain raised in the 
hotter and drier air greatly suq^asses the fonner in its nutritive 
value. 

169. Prof. Beck, in his numerous examinations, found that 
the wheat and wheat-flour of the United States are equal to, if 
not greater in nutritive value than those afforded by samples 
produced in any other part of the world. 

170. The following is an analysis of Michigan (A,) and 
of Richmond Mill ('^jj Flour: (Beck) 

A B 

Water, 12.25 11,70 

Gluten and Albumen, - . - 10.00 13.00 

Starch, 67.70 67.50 

Glucose, Dextrine, (fee, - - - 8.75 6.90 

Bran, 0.75 0.50 

Ash, 0.55 0.40 

100.00 100,60 

lYl. The proportion of gluten in flour not only increases the 
nutritive value, but also the economical. It is to the peculiar 
mechanical property of this gluten that wlieat 'flour owes it* 
superior power of detaining the carbonic acid engendered by 
fermentation, and thus communicating to it the vesicular, 
spongy structure so characteristic of good bread. Where the 
proportion of gluten is large, the bread, absorbing more water, 
&c., weighs heavier. Thus, on an accurate and careful experiment, 
two pounds of Ginciimati flour, and two pounds of Alabama 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



flour were each, separately, mixed with a quarter of a pound of 
yeast, and were made into loaves and baked in the same oven. 
The Cincinnati loaf weighed ... 3 i]jg. 



The Alabama loaf weighed 



31 lbs 



The ^ain in the latter is 22 percent, over the former; or five 
barrels of Southeni flour are equal to six of Northern floiu-. 
(Pat. Off, Rep., 1846, p. 150.) 

172. When feraientation, or rising^ in bread is affected by 
the addition of yeast or leaven to the paste or dough, the char- 
acter of the mass is materially altered. A larger or smaller 
proportion of the flour is virtually lost ; according to Dr. W. 
Gregory it amounts to a loss of one sixteenth pai-t of the whole 
of the flour. To avoid this, it has been recommended to raise 
bread by means of carbonate of soda and muriatic acid, which 
produce the same effect as yeast, while the sugar and gluten 
are saved ; these two former materials foi-ming common salt ; an(i 
giving off carbonic acid gas. 

173. The best soils for Wheat are those which contain a 
good proportion of clay and lime. Light and sandy soils do 
not usually produce good wheat. 

Boussingault gives the following classification of soils : 



Soils according to composi- 
tion. 



Usually Designated. 






Clay with humus, 



Marly Soil, 
Light soil, with humus, 
Sandy Soil, humus, 
Argillaceous land, 
Marly Soil, 
Argillaceous land, 
StifiFer « " 
Clay, I 



Rich wheat land, 



Meadow land, 
Rich Barley land. 
Good Wheat land, 
Wheat land, 



74 


10 


4 


81 


6 


4 


79 


10 


4 


40 


22 


36 


14 


47 


10 


20 


67 


3 


58 


36 


2 


56 


30 


12 


60 


38 




48 


50 




68 


30 





11.5 



4 
27 
10 
4 
2 
2 
2 



66 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Soils according to composi- 
tion. 


Usually designated. 


.3 
(J 


§ 

CO 


o . 
►JO 




Stiff argillaceous land, 
(( « (( 


Barley land, 1st class, 

" " 2d class, 


38 
33 


60 
G5 




2 
2 


Sandy Clay, 

« it 


<( (( (( 
Oat land, 


28 
23.5 


70 

75 




2 

1.6 


Clayey Sand, 
Sandy Soil, 


Rye land, 
« (( 


18.5 
14 

9 

4 


80 
85 
90 
95 




1.5 

1 

1 

0.75 


« « 


(C i< 


2 


97.5 




0.5 



Besides these constituents, a good wheat soil should contain 
a notable proportion of potash, soda, phosphoric acid, and nitro- 
gen. In Great Britain, the introduction of turnips and clover 
culture and drainage has gi-eatly extended the range of wheat 
producing soils; this grain being now cultivated in rotation, 
with profit, even on sandy soils ; so true is it, that science can 
adapt the earth and climate to almost any crop which it is de- 
sirable to cultivate. 

174. Wheat, is considered a scourging crop, rapidly impov- 
erishing the soil, in consequence of its requiring for its compo- 
sition large quantities of materials, chiefly inorganic, which are 
naturally rare in soils. In this respect, it is placed at the head, 
of grains. According to Boussingault, a medium crop of wheat 
takes from one acre of jrround : 











ACIDS. 




















< 
<2 












i 




^ 




i 

o 


"a 
6 

< 


o 


'G 

o 

a, 
o 


6 
'u 

"a. 

3 


o 


a 


.9 

a 
be 


I 

p 

■s 

I 


oi 

i3 

to 


a 
o 
A 
"5 

.-2 

M 

o 




lbs 


lbs 


lbs Ibs'itbs 


lbs lbs 


lbs 


lbs 


lbs 


lbs 


Wheat, - - - 


1052 


2.4 


25 


12 


0.3 


0.8 


4 


7 


04 




Wheat Straw, - - 


2558 
3610 


7.0 
9^4 


179 
204 


5 
17 


1.5 

1.8 


1 15 


9 
13 


17 


121. 


12 


Total, - - - 


1 


15.8 


24 


121.4 


_il 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 6< 

An average crop takes of organic matter tlie following, in. 
grain and straw : 

Carbon, - - 2259 lbs. I Oxygen, - - 1923 lbs. 

Hydrogen, - - 262 " I Nitrogen, - - 62 " 

or, as Ammonia, 63 lbs. 

In consequence, it is found, in practice, that it is impossible 
leven upon the best wheat «oib, to gi'ow this grain for sevcrfil 
years in succession, without injuring the land; and, in most 
cases, the crop becoming so small as to be unprofitable. What 
is taken away must be replaced either directly by manures, or 
by growing other cro|>s which do not require the chief constit- 
uents of wheat. 

175. There are many rich soils in the Western States, such 
as Prairies, and River Bottoms, in which wheat runs to straw, 
•and produces very little grain. This is commonly said to be 
owing to the land being " too rick;'''' but, in reality, it must be 
an conseq^ience of a deficiency of some constituents of the 
whoat; which judicicas manuring ^vo^dd supply. We are not 
aware that -a comparative analysis of such lands has been yet 
made, but they will probably be found deficient in the alkaliei: 
and lime. 

176. The manures for wheat necessarily vary according to 
the nature of the soil, and the mode in which it has been crop- 
ped. It may, however, be stated as general proposition, that our 
wheat lands appear deficient in am7noiiia, and that they cannot 
fail to be benefitted by nitrogeneous manures, such as guano, 
flesh, blood, sheep-dung, well-saved barn-yard manure, and such 
tike. 

There are probably few fields in the country in which the 
•crop may not be greatly increased by judicious manuring ; and 
very many that require manures to continue them at or brii:g 
Ihera up to their original fertility. 

177. It has been already stated (§159,) that the composition 
of wheat varies greatly according to tht; manure employed. 



AGKICITLTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Tlitis, manures ■whicli are lich in nitrogen (ammonia,) not only 
increase the crop, but also produce a grain richer in gluten, and 
therefore intrinsically more valuable. On ten patches, each one 
hundred square feet, of the same soil (a sandy loam,) manured 
with equal weights of difterent manures in the dry statCf 
Hermbstadt sowed equal quantities (^ lb.) of the same wheat, — 
collected, weighed, and analyzed the produce. His results are 
represented in the following table : 





O 


1 


a 
-a 

1 


bo 

c 
9 

O 


|,4 


be 

C 

1 


a 
1 


§ 
1 


■% 


a 
a 


RETURN 


)4fld 


Hfld 


12fld 
4.2 


12 fid 
4.3 


12fld 
4.2 


'0fld9fold 


-fold 

4.2 


5 fold 
4.2 


3 fold 


Water, - - - 


4.3 


4.2 


4.3 


4.3 


4,2 


Gluten, - - - 


34.2 


33.9 


32.9 


32.9 


35.1 


13.7 


12.2 


12.0 


9.6 


9.2 


Albumen, - - 


1.0 


1.3 


1.3 


1.3 


1.4 


1.1 


0.9 


1.0 


0.8 


0.7 


Starch,- - - - 


41.3 


41.4 


42.8|42.4 


39.9 


01.6 


63.2 


62.3 


65.9 


66.S 


Sugar, - - - 


1.9 


1.6 


1.5 


1.5 


1.4 


1.6 


1.9 


1.9 


1.9 


1.9 


Gum, - - - - 


18 


1.6 


1.5 


1.5 


1.6 


1.6 


1:9 


1.9 


1.6 


1.8 


Fatty oil, - - 


0.9 


1.1 1.0 


0.9 


1.0 


1.0 


0.9 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


Sol.phosphates,&c 


0.5 


0.6 0.7 


0.7 


0.9 


0.6j 0.5 


0.5 


0.5 


0.3 


Husk and Bran, 


13.9 


14.0 13.8 


14.2 


14.2 


14.0 


14.0 


14.9 


14.0 


14.0 




99.8 


99.7 99.7 


99.7 


99.7 


99.6 


99.8 


&9.7|99.8 


99.7 



It must not, however, be forgotten, that these are garden ex- 
periments ; and while the theory is probably quite true, in field 
culture the farmer may be unable to produce exactly the same 
results. Such experiments must be considered rather as illus- 
trating a general principle, than as positively useful in practice, 
except to a limited extent. 

178. The only mode in which a farmer can judiciously/ use 
manure, is by having an analysis of his land, showing what con- 
stituents are soluble, what may easily be rendered so, and what 
is wanting. 

179. In many parts of tbe United States, wheat soils are manured by 
the complex action of clover, ]ilaster {sulphate of lime) and sheep dung. 
The philosophy of this is aa follows: The surface soil is naturally, or 



AGKICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 69 

has become by cultivation deficient in soluble lime and sulphuric acid, 
two constituents consumed in large quantities by clover ; and which 
must be supplied before clover can grow. The clover ia therefore sown 
with powdered plaster which contains these two elements, and it grows 
luxuriantly. But while the surface soil has been impoverished, the sub- 
soil remains full of salts ; and the clover sends down its deep tap roots 
into the subsoil, collects such inorganic matter as its finds there, and 
brings it to the surface. The sheep eat the green part, and scatter the con- 
stituents of the clover over the ground, together uith the ammonia formed 
in the urine. The closer is then plowed up, and all that it has received 
from the subsoil and the air, is again rendered more or less soluble by 
decay, and supplied to tlie surface soil where the wheat roots find it. 
This can scarcely be called real manuring. With the exception of a lit- 
tle lime and sulphuric acid, nothing is supplied to the field but what it 
or the air contained before. The clover has acted as a collector. It has 
brought together on the surface what was before scattered in the sub- 
soil, but it aiFords nothing new. The effect, in time, of such practice 
must be, that not only the surface but the subsoil also becomes impov- 
erished ; and each crop of wheat carries off the constituents of a larger 
area, than it could possibly do without clover. Uuless, manures from 
the barn-yard or other sources are also supplied, the soil must, finally, 
be very seriously injured. 

180. Tliero are various modes of preparing the land for 
Wheat; (a,) summer following, with three distinct plowings, 
(b,) plowing once ; (c,) plowing once and rendering the surface 
mellow with a cultivator ; all of which have their advocates, 
and all are probably good for peculiar soils, and under peculiar 
circumstances. (See plowing.) 

181. There are also various modes of covering the grain, (a,) 
by a harrow or drag ; (b.,) by plowing it in with a shallow fur- 
row with a plow or cultivator; (c^) by ribbing; (d,) with a 
Drill Machine. (See Implements.) 

182. Wheat is sown (a,) either broadcast by hand or by a 
machine ; (b,) by a drill ; or in England (c,) by a dibble. 

183. It is harvested (a,) by hand with a sickle or reaping- 
hook ; (b,) with a cradle ; (c,) by a machine worked by horses. 



70 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

In all cases, it is usually bound with a band made of its own 
straw into sheaves, and set up in shocks to dry. 

184. It is either (a,) stacked out of doors, or (b,) put into 
a bam ; (c,) or thrashed in the field. 

185. It is thrashed (a,J by a flail; (b,) by horses or cattle 
treading on it; (c,) by a machine moved by horse-power; (d,) 
or, among the French, by a machine called Le Diable. 

186. The chaiF is separated from the grain by (a,) a Fan- 
ning Mill, or (bf) by the wind. 

186. It is then ready for (a,) storing in the granary, or (b,) 
sending to market, which is usually done in bags holding two 
measured bushels. 

188. It has been already stated (§163) that the comparative 
ripeness affects the weight and quality of the grain. The best 
practical rule is to cut when a grain of wheat pressed between 
the finger and thumb is easily cmshed, and yields a considera- 
ble quantity of juice ; and when the straw is still more or less 
green, especially near the root. Some experience, however, is 
requisite in determining the exact time. 

189. For seed, on the contrary, wheat should be allowed to 
stand until it is quite ripe ; and then selected with care. The 
best wheat is raised from seed carefully selected from large heads. 
In former days, when wheat was winnowed by the wind, the 
largest and heaviest grains were preserved for seed. Great im- 
provement, both in the variety and crop, may undoubtedly bo 
affected by exercising care in this particular. Experiments seem 
to prove that wheat thrashed by a machine frequently has the 
germinating power destroyed; and though it may throw out 
leaves is deficient in roots, and therefore perishes. 

The Boston Cultivator, 1845, gives an instance of a farmer in Ver- 
mont, who saved his seed wheat, who used, before thrashing, to select 
the best sheaves, and striking them over the side of an empty barrel as 
it lay on the floor, three or four times, he obtained a very superior seed 
wheat. Thus the largest and ripest kernels were separated and collect- 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 7l 

ed. While the process was kept secret, so high a reputation had this 
wheat, that the neiglibors willingly paid double the usual price for it. 

190. The quantity of seed sown to the acre varies in the 
United States from one and a half to two bushels, broadcast; 
and about one bushel if drilled. In Great Britain, where much 
more seed of all the cereals is sown than with us, three to four 
bushels is the usual quantity, when broadcast. 

191. The waste of seed in the soil is very great, especially 
when broadcast ; chiefly in consequence of the irregular depth 
at which the grain is planted. The following calculation has 
been made, (Stephens.) " Wheat at 63 lbs. to the bushel, gives 
87 of its seeds to the drachm ; or 701,568 to the bushel (in 
apothecary's weight,) or 865,170, (in avoirdupois weight.) 
Now three bushels of seed are sown on the acre, or 2,595,510 
grains of Avheat. Suppose that each grain produces one stem ; 
and every stem bears an ear containing the common number of 
32 grains, the produce of the acre should be 96 bushels; but 
the heaviest crop in Scotland rarely exceeds 64 bushels to the 
acre, or 33 per cent, of the seed is lost in the best crops, and 58 
per cent, in an ordinary one of 40 bushels." It is very impor- 
tant that such experiments as these should be made in the Uni- 
ted States, so as to ascertain the exact quantity of seed to be 
sown in each soil and chmate. 

192. The depth at which seeds are sown, is also very impor- 
tant. In order to germinate, a seed must have acccess to mois- 
ture, air, and warmth, but be excluded from light. If covei-ed 
too deep, it will not sprout ; if too shallow it is apt to perish for 
want of moisture and from other causes. Seeds of difierent 
plants germinate at various depths. It is laid down as a rule 
that wheat sown before winter should be as deeply covered w^ith 
earth as to be beyond the reach of injurious frost, say four or 
five inches ; but when sown in spring it should be lightly co\- 
ered, little exceeding one inch. In no case should Avheat be 
deeper than six or seven inches. In light dry soils it should be 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

deeper than in wet adhesive clays ; and where clods are numer- 
ous more seed is requisite than where the earth is in fine tilth. 
The following table is given on the authority of M. Moreau, of 
Paris. He formed thirteen beds in which he planted one hun- 
dred and fifty kernels of wheat at various depths : 



At Depth of 


Came up. 


No. of Heads. 


No. of Grains. 


7 inches, 


5 


53 


682 


6J « 


14 


140 


2,520 


6| " 


20 


174 


3,818 


4J " 


40 


400 


8,000 


H " 


73 


700 


16,500 


33 « 


93 


992 


18,534 


2| " 


123 


1417 


35,434 


2J " 


130 


1560 


34,349 


2 " 


140 


1590 


36,480 


11 " 


142 


1660 


35,826 


1 " 


137 


1561 


35,072 


n " 


64 


529 


10,587 


On surface, 


20 


107 


1,600 



From these experiments it would appear that the grain should 
not be sown at much greater depth than two inches, nor nearer 
the surface than one inch. The soil is not stated. 

193. Wheat a year old is considered to be better for sowing 
in the Fall than new wheat. New wheat germinates quicker, 
but is more easily aflfected by bad weather and insects, and gen- 
erally the stalks are neither as numerous nor as strong. 

194. Wheat is frequently steeped or pickled (a,) to act as a 
manure ; (b,) to destroy the sporules or seeds of smut. Various 
substances are used, as (c,) salt and water; (d,) gi-een vitriol, 
(suljihate of iron,) (e,) stale urine; (f,) arsenic, &c. Arsenic, 
however, has been proved to be decidedly dangerous to the 
sower, and the use of it is forbidden by the French government. 
Various modes of steeping, according to convenience, are used ; 
and the seed is dried with wood ashes, plaster, slacked lime, 
powdered clay, &c. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. "73 

195. 1-0. judging of seed wheat, the dimpled end of the grain 
should be distinctly marked, and the point from Avhich the lit- 
tle roots proceed must be somewhat prominent; the end from 
which the blade springs should also be slightly covered with 
hairiness or wooliness. The little protuberances at either of 
those ends must not have been rubbed off, as the grain is there- 
by dej)rived of vitality. Kiln-drying spoils gi-ain for sowing. 
It may be known by unusual hardness, and a smoky odor. 
Wheat that has heated in the stack will taste bitter ; if slightly 
sprouted, sweet; and if long kept in the granary it will smell 
musty, and look dull and dusty. If eaten by the weevil it may 
be detected by pressing the kernel with the fingers. If rusted 
it wiU be shrunk ; if smutty, it wall have a black appearance and 
a peculiar smell. 

1 96. The weeds that principally injure wheat in the United 
States are (a,) Cockle, (Lychnis Githago ;J (h,) Chess or Cheat, 
(Bromus secalinus;) (c,) Pigeon-weed, or Rod-root, Steon- 
crout. Stony-seed, Wheat-thief, ( Lithosjoermum arvense;) (d,) 
(chiefly in spring wheat,) Field-mustard or Charlock, (Sinapia 
arvensis;) (e,) Vetch, or Black-pea, Tare, ( Vicia sativa ? and 
Americana?) (f^) Wild-radish, also called Charlock. (Ra- 
phanus Raiihanistrum.) These are all annuals; for perenni- 
al weeds are confined to no particular crop. 

Cockle (a.) is a strong gro-wing upright plant, one to two and a Lalf 
feet high, with a purple flower, and seed pod full of black Reeds. It in- 
jures the wheat chiefly in grinding for flour, discoloring it, and giving 
an unpleasant bitter flavor. 

Chess, (b,) a species of grass. There are two other species of the 
game genus indigenous to the United States, and two more introduced 
from England. The leaves and stalk, in their earlier stages, greatly re- 
semble wheat, but the flowers, stamens, and seeds, are very difi'erent. 
It grows chiefly in soil plowed in the Fall, but is also met with in mead- 
ows, and among spring crops, where no wheat was ever sown. It is 
probably a native of most parts of the Northern States, and like other 
weeds, the germs are contained in the soil ready to \egilale as soon as 
the conditions of growth arc favorable. The seeds are very numerous. 



74 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Seven thousand liernela have been counted growing from one root ; 
enough to seed three hundred acres thickly the third year, were it culti- 
vated. They are also very difficult to destroy, passing through animals 
and fowls without losing the germiuative power. It was formerly as 
plentiful in England as it is with us, but by care in sowing cleau seed, 
it is now all but exterminated. There is a notion among some farn)ers 
that "wheat turns into chess ;" but this is wholly opposed to all facts 
and analogies ; and the belief may be classed among the superstitions of 
the dark ages that still linger in our profession. (See Patent Office Re- 
ports, 1849, p. 455; 1851, p. 650.) By sowing wheat seed perfectly clean 
of chess, it soon disappears. It is chiefly troublesome by drawing the 
nourishment from the growing wheat, and overpowering it ; and injur- 
ing the flour. When crushed, it is good food for horses and poultry, and 
if boiled, for hogs. 

Pigeon-weed, (c,) has been introduced from Europe. It is an annual 
plant "slender, hoary wilh minnte oppressed hairs, somewhat branched ; 
leaves lanceolate, acutish, nearly veinless ; racemes few-flowered, the 
lower flowers remote ; corolla (yellowish white) not longer than the 
calyx." {Gray.) 

This weed appears to be confined to certain soils, such as in New 
York are known by the uame of Marcellus Shales, and in Michigan, as 
Oak Openings, and Burr Oak Plains. In this latter State, it is found in 
the Interior, while it yet seems to be unknown in the heavy clays, form- 
ing a belt around the Peninsula. Where it becomes plentiful it is ex- 
ceedingly injurious to the wheat crop. It is not above thirty jears 
since it was introduced into New York, and it has now spread wherev- 
er it finds a congenial soil. The peculiarities of the character and habit 
of this weed consist (a,) in the hard shell with which its seed or nut is 
covered ; (6,) in the time at which it comes up and ripens its seed ; (c,) 
in the superficial way in which its roots spread. The seed is so hard 
that it passes uninjured through cattle and birds, and lies for years in the 
ground without perishing. It grows very little in spring, but shoots up 
and ripens in the Fall, and its roots spread through the surface soil on- 
ly, and exhaust the food by which the young wheat should be nourished. 
It is said to be so prolific as to increase more than two hundred fold an- 
nually. When it has once got into the land, two or three successive 
crops of wheat will give it entire possession of the soil. In Yates 
County, N. Y., the seeds are crushed with linseed, for the oil they con- 
tain, which is about 4 lbs. per bushel ; and for the addition which the 
husk makes to the oil cake. The only mode of exterminating it is, 
when slight, to pick it out of the growing wheat by hand ; and when 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 76 

abiiTidaiit, to plow onci or twice in the fall, after tbe seed has sprouted ; 
and to cultivate spring hoed crops, avoiding wheat for some years. The 
seed must on no account be mixed with manure or given to stock, as it 
■will tlius be spread everywhere. As ordinaiy care and good farming 
■will prevent its spreading further west, and as, in lands that suit, it is 
the most injurious wheat-weed in the Uniied Slates, it is important that 
the whole community should attend to it. If allowed to grow on one 
farm, it will inevitably spread to others, being carried by birds, and 
other means. 

Field Mustard (J,) and Wild Radish, (/,) are known by their bright 
yellow flowers. They are injurious by taking the place of the grain, 
and overpowering it. The seeds are small, numerous, and very persis- 
tent. The best mode of eradicating these plants, is to p^jll them by 
band when in blossom. 

Vetch, (c,) is a small creeping pea-like plant, adl ering to the grain 
by its tendrils. In some soils it is very plentiful ; and is chiefly inju- 
rious in grinding, discoloring the flour and giving it a bad flavor. The 
seeds are small, round, and black. It may be exterminated by one or 
two hoed spring crops, and laying the land to pasture for a year or two. 
A good fa'^.ning-mill would probably clean the grain completely, but the 
■ft'riter has seen wheat brought to mill in Western Canada, containing 
one third of the seeds of the Vetch. It ajipears to be confined to rich 
clay and loamy lands. 

197. The parasitic fungi which are injurious to -n^heat are 
(a,) Smut or Bunt ; (b,) Rust ; (c,) Mildew. 

A Fungus is a cellular flowerless plant, deriving its nutriment by 
means of spawn. It lives in air, and is propogated by spores, which 
are naked, or by sporidia, so called when enclosed in little vesicles. 
Fungi may be said to consist of a mass of little cells, or little threads, 
or of both combined in various ways. They have no seed or fruit ex- 
cept iheir sporules, spores or sporidia, of which the methods of attach- 
ment are singularly curious and beautiful. They derive their nourish- 
ment from the substance on which they grow, and not from the media 
in which they exist. Well known Fungi are Mushrooms, Toadstools, 
Puflballs, mould on cheese, &c., most of which are poisonous. Many 
of them grow on living plants, as Smut and Rust ; but the small ones, 
to a great extent, on animal substances in a state of partial decay ; or 
where they can find nitrogenous compounds, as in bread, &c. The 
spores are often of exceeding minuteness, and epidemic diseases hay© 



V6 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

been attributed to their influence. Certain species are found in the liv- 
ing human body; and in the inferior animals. These are called Eido- 
phyta. A striking instance is the disease which kills so many silk- 
worms, known as the Muscardlne, where the Fungus is planted in the 
ekin and grows externally. Dr. licidy, (Smithsonian CotUrib.to Eiwid.) 
has described ten species of this order found in men. 

198. There are two species of Smut, (a,)', the one (b,) Ure- 
do caries, or fcetidum, a broAvnish black dust, greasy, and fetid, 
taking the place of the kernel of wheat. It does not appear 
externally, being confined within the husk. The other (c,) 
Uredo segetum, (Black eare. Brand, Dust Brand, Burnt Com, 
&c.,) is met with in Barley and Oats as well as Wheat. It re- 
sembles a black dust, growing within the glumes of the plant. 
It destroys the seed, and its envelopes. The spores are so 
small that a square inch could contain 7,840,000 of them, and 
within these again are inumerable sporoles. Smut (a,) is un- 
doubtedly propagated from the wheat seed to the living plant. 
M. Bauer (Trans, of Linnean Soc'i/., London, vol., xviii., p, 
468,J has shown that " Smut-balls" on grain can certainly be 
produced by inoculating the seed with the sporoles of the fun- 
gus. These bodies are carried into the interior of the plant by 
the sap, after being absorbed by the roots. Johnston says it 
can be seen where they have come up through the stalk. When 
examined, the tubes of the stalk were filled Avith black matter 
that had come thi'ough the vessels, affecting first the straw, then 
getting into the ear, whence it spreads itself all over. Thou- 
sands of the sporules may be attached to a single grain of 
wheat, and yet be invisible to the naked eye. This disease is 
most common on damj) undrained soils, with impervious sub- 
soils ; and may be ei-adicated by (a,) thorough draining of the 
land; (b,) and by washing the grain previous to sowing in 
some saline mixture (§193) and drying with slacked lime. 

199. Of Rust (b,) there are also two species. One (c,) is 
found scattered over the inner surface of the outer chaff" scales, 
the skin of which is raised into blisters. This is called by 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 



77 



Botanists Uredo ruUgo; it is of an orange yellow color; and 
■W'lien severe, causes the grain to shrink, and prevents matura- 
tion. The other (d,) Uredo linearis is confined to the straw 
and leaf, and is the color of the rust of iron. It causes the 
epidermis to split, and it is supposed to permit the emission of 
the juices. The grain is affected by this in the same manner 
as by the former. 

Wet soils are most subject to these fungi, but they especially 
appear during sultry, wet weather towards the flowering of the 
plant. 

200. Mildew (i. e. mel-dew, from an old notion that it was 
produced by honey-dew falling from the air,) or Blight, (c,) is 
produced by Puccinia grarninis. It forms blackish brown pa- 
rallel, lives upon the straw, and seems to affect the entire plant, 
80 that it deprives the sap of the powder to form seed in a 
healthy state, and hence the grain is very much shrivelled, or 
no grain at all is formed. The spores of this fungus enter the 
straw by its breathing poi-es, which are closed in dry weather, 
but opened in a wet or damp atmosphere. This disease, like 
the last, attacks the plant in warm, moist weather, and often 
with remarkable suddeness and severity. Wet soils, and over- 
manured land are chiefly subject to it ; and earth containing 
a large proportion of the salts of iron appears to add to the ten- 
dency. Draining is probably the only cure. 

201. Wheat is also subject to attacks from various insects. 
The injury caused by these is sometimes so great and perma- 
nent as to prevent the culture of wheat at all, as has been the 
case in some parts of New England and New York. We shall 
shortly enumerate those most common in the United States, re- 
ferring the student for scientific descriptions to Dr. T. W. Har- 
ris' Treatise on some of the Insects of New England which 
are injurious to vegetation^ 2d. Ed., Boston, 1852, and for 
further information to the Patent Office Pectoris from 1844, 



V8 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

and to the older volumes of the Agricultural Periodicals of tlie 
United States. 

202. (A,) Insects injurious to the seed, when soivn, and to 
the young plant : 

In Indiana, wheat has been injured both before and after germinating 
by a "red aut." It bores a sraall hole into the kernel, and consumes 
the germ ; or cuts off the sprout, and eats into the grain. Drilled wheat 
appears to escape these ravages. {Ayinual Report oflndiamx State Board 
of Agriculture, 1852. 2. The Prairie Farmer, in 1844, describes a 
sraall flj, a little more than an eighth of an inch in size, with four 
wings, and the odor of a bed-bug, which did much injury in Illinois. 
It first destroyed the heads of wheat previous to harvest ; it then took 
to the corn-fields, killing that which was not too far ripened ; and then 
attacked the young wheat, cutting it off just beneath the surface of the 
earth, " taking all clean as they go. They are of all stages of growth, 
and have been from the first, and the ground is perforated with the holes 
made by them." 3. In common with many other grains and vegeta- 
bles, young wlieat is sometimes injured by the " Cut-worms," (Agroti' 
didw,) " Wire- worms," {Mi,) and "Grub-worms," (3IelolonthaJ<B.) 
but these will be referred to more particularly hereafter, 

(BJ Insects which injure the straw of wheat while growing : 

1. The Chinch-bug (Lygcensleucoptervs. S.it.) has done much se- 
vere injury in the South and West, including Wisconsin and Illinois. 
In its perfect statj it is winged, and measures three-twcntielhs of an 
inch in lergth. The eggs are laid in the ground ; and the young make 
their appearance on wheat about the middle of June, and still later at- 
tack all kinds of grain, corn, and herds-grass, during the whole sum- 
mer. 2. The Joint-worm (Eurytoma ?) has proved eminently 

destructive in Virginia. It varies from one-tenth to nearly three-twen- 
tieths of an inch in length, is of a pale yellowish wliite color, with an 
internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs. It buries itself in the 
straw, generally at a joint, in or near the second or third joint from the 
ground. The substance of the straw for a distance exceeding half aa 
inch is much swollen, and changed to a wood-like texture, while tho 
surface exhibits long, pale spots, slightly elevated like a blister. The 
worm finally changes to a winged insect. Burning the stubble as soon 
as the grain is harvested is recommended as a cure. 3. The Hessiiui 
Fly (Cecidomyia desintdor.) is supposed to have been introduced frotn 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 70 

Germany into Lonf;^ Island, R. I., by the Hessian troops, under Sir W. 
Howe, in 177G. Tlience it gradually spread over the Southern parts of 
New York and Connecticut, at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles a year. 
It was found west of the Alleghany Mountains, in 1797. In many 
places, the culture of wheat was abandoned in consequence of its rav- 
ages. The body of the perfect insect measures about one-tenth of an 
inch in length, and the wings expand a quarter of an inch or more. 
Two broods are brought to maturity in the course of a year, and the 
flies appear in the spi ing and fall. In the latitude of New England, the 
female begins to lay its eggs on the blade of the young wheat at the 
end of September, or beginning of October. In four to fifteen days 
the egg hatches ; the maggot, of a pale red color, crawls down the leaf, 
and works its way between it and the main stalk, passing down till it 
comes to a joint, just above which it remains, a little below the surface 
of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant. Here it 
rests till its tiansformations are completed. It niether eats the stalk, 
nor penetrates within it, but lies lengthwise upon its surface, nourished 
■wholly by the sap. As it increases in size, it becomes imbedded in the 
side of the stem, by pressuie. If two or three are fixed in this manner 
they frequently ct-use the plant to fall down and die. In five or six 
•weeks tbey grow to full size— tbree-twenticths of an inch in length. 
About the first of December, they harden and change to a bright chest- 
nut color; in which lorm they are commonly likened to a flix seed. 
In this state, they gradually change to a fly, and appear again as such 
at the end of April or beginning of May. Very soon after, they are 
ready to lay their eggs on the leaves of the wheat sown in the previous 
fall, or the same spring. In tiirce weeks they entirely disappear from 
the field. Undergoing the same changes, the maggets from these egge 
take the flax-seed form in June and July, In this state they are found 
at the time of harvest, and when the grain is gathered they remain in 
the stubble in the fields. Some, however, are carried to the barn 
The principal migrations of the flies take place in the middle of Au- 
gust and September. 4. In 1843, Miss Morns discovered in Pennsy'- 
vania, another species of the He?sian Fly. (CeciJomyia culmicola.) It 
diflers in its habits from the former, by depositing its eggs early in June 
in the grain. The egg remains unhatched till the gain is sown and 
germinates, and the maggot soon oats Its way into and hurries itself in 
the straw. Here it remains till it is ready to assume tlie flax-seed form, 
and then, emerging, fixes itself to the outside of the stalk. It has since 
disappeared from the locality, but may probably be met with else- 
where, being mistaken for the first specica. 



80 AQSICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

5. The larva or maggots of Oscinis lineata, Chlorops pumilionis, and 
Chlorops glabra, and other flies allied to them, live within the lower 
part of the stems of wheat, rye, and barley, thereby impoverishing the 
plants, and causing them to become stinted in their growth. They are 
rather larger insects than the Frit-Fly. It is highly probable that some 
of thsse species, or the Oscinians with similar habits may be found in 
the stems of wheat, and other grains, and perhaps also in the eare. "A 
careful examination of all the insects that inhabit our fields of grain is 
Tery much wanted." (^Harris.) 

6. The Patent Office Report, 1845, p. 144, mentions a worm which ap- 
peared among wheat in Buck's Co.. Penn. " It is a green worm about 
an inch long ; its head is brownish green, with two brown spots on it. 
It ascends the stalk of wheat, soon after it has headed, cuts off the 
Lead, and feeds upon the top of the standing part." 

( C,) Insects which, injure the grain of wheat in the field : 

1. Wheat-fly, Grain-worm, Weevil, (Cccidomayia Trltici.) This is a 
small fly, one-tenth of an inch long, somewhat resembling a musquito 
in form, and was probably introduced from England. It is said to have 
been first seen in America in 1838, in North Vermont, and Lower Can- 
ada. It has since spread to Upper Canada, New York, New Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and probably other States ; and has, 
in some instances, caused the growth of wheat to be relinquished. The 
female appears from the begining of June to the end of August, in the 
wheat fields, in immense swarms, when they lay their eggs in the open- 
ing flowers of the grain. The eggs hatch in about eight days, and a 
little yellow magget is produced. It never exceeds an eight of an inch 
in length. From two to twenty have been found within the husk of a 
single grain. They prey on the wheat in its milky state, and stop when 
it becomes hard ; in consequence, the kernels never fill out. Late in 
July and early in August, the-^e raaggets change their skins and enter 
the ground, where they remain through the winter ; at the depth of 
an inch. Deep plowing in the fall, and the use of caustic lime as a 
manu'e are recommended for their destruction, as the best among many 
receipts. 

2. Another small fly, very similar in its effects (Thrips cercalium,) 
has been met with in New Hampshire. 3. Brown Weevil, Grey Worm, 
Wheat-worm, (Caradrina cubicularis ?) This, which has proved Tery 
injurious in Western New York, Northern Pennsylvania, and other lo- 
calities, has not yet been distinctly recognized as a species, nor ia its 



AGRICULTtJRAL TEXT-BOOK. 81 

full history known. It is a catapillar or span-worm, from three to five- 
eighths of an inch long, of various shades of brown or yellow in color. 
3t feeds not only on the kernel in the milky state, but also devours the 
germinating end of the ripened grain, without buryirig itself within the 
hull; and it is found in great numbers in the chaff when the grain is 
thrashed. They continue to eat the grain after harvest. Hoi water 
should be poured on those met with iu thrashing, and none should be 
allowed to escape. 

(B^) Insects which injure grain in the granary : 

1. The Grain Weevil, (Calandra or CurcuUo granarius.) This he- 
longs to the same family of insects as the Curculio which destrovs 
plums. In its perfect state it is a slender beetle of a pitchy rod color. 
about an eighth of an inch long. The female deposites her eggs upon 
the wheat after it is housed, and the young grubs hatched therefrom 
immediately burrow into the wheat, each individual occupying alone a 
single grain, the substance of which it devours so as to leave nothing 
but the hull, and the loss of weight is the only external evidence of the 
mischief that has been done. The adults also eat the grain. In Eu- 
rope, it has proved peculiarly destructive to stored grain. Roasting or 
kiln-drying the wheat, effectually destroys the grub. 2. The Grain- 
moth {Tinea granella.) 3. The Angoumois moth (Anacampsis cereal- 
ef/rt,) are small moths, resembling the well known carpet-month of 
houses, the grubs of which prey on stored grain. They have spread 
very generally over the United States. The last species was probably in- 
troduced into Virginia from France 

There are probably many other insects than the nbove injurious to 
wheat at various stages of its growth ; but unfortunately practical 
farmers pay little attention to entomology, and are apt to confound not 
only one known species with another, but also those which are de- 
scribed with those which are not. An intelligent farmer would confer 
a great benefit on the community were he to study carefully the habits 
of all insects injurious to vegetation in his own locality, and make the 
results known. Insects injurious to the farmer appear to be increasing 
in all parts of this country, and it is very essential that their habits 
should be accurately studied so that remedies may be devised. It ia 
only by our becoming thoroughly acquainted with the character and 
peculiarities of our enemies, that we can hope to overcome them. Mero 
,»ue8ses, and random experiments, rarely if ever, prove of any benefit. 
The loss annually sustained by the country in consequence o( the do- 
Q 



82 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

predations of insects is exceeding great, and is calculated by millions of 
dollars. 

203. The manufacture of flour is, in itself, a business inde- 
pendent of the farmer. It employs a large amount of capital, 
requiring expensive buildings and macbinery; and consumes 
mucb timber in the making of barrels. It is not necessary to 
refer to it any further in this place, otherwise than to say that 
a good farmer will always endeavor to take his wheat to market 
in the best and cleanest condition. In 1850, 2,202,335 bar- 
rels of Flour were exported from the United States. 

It is extremely important to the practical farmer to know the cost of producing 
wheat, so that he may be able to make his calculations, and avoid losses. The Com- 
missioner of Patents has more than once endeavored to acquire a knowledge of the 
expense of bringing a bushel of wheat to market, in various parts of the United 
States ; and though, owing to difficulties in the way, it has been found impossible to 
arrive at an accurate estimate, the actual cost of every bushel of wheat, to the farmer 
may be stated to be from 50 cents to $1 % according to the location, the value of tho 
land, and the need of manure, &c. The following, which is a bona fide account by 
a very intelligent, practical farmer, may be considered as the actual cost in the older 
settled parts of Michigan. The field contained 12 and 2-100 acres of land. 

Plowing, 7 days, 3 pair oxen, 1 pair horses, 2 men and 1 boy, - - 821,00 

Harrowing 2 days with team, --..-. 2,00 

Cultivating 2 days, ...... . 2,00 

19>i bushels seed at $1,00, .-.-... 19,50 

Sowing 1 day, .--.-•--- 63 

Cultivating 3 days and harrowing 1 day, - . . . • 6,00 

Furrowing and cleaning furrows, 2 dayg, • • . . . 1,50 

Weeding Y, day, - 31 

Harvesting, &c., 37 days, -.-..-. 32,38 

Team, .--..--.- 1,50 

Thrashing and cleaning, ....--- 28,82 

Manures, ...--..-» 7,75 

Interest on value of land, ($6 per acre,) . - - . . 7,56 

9128,99 

The produce was 545 bushels of wheat or about 45 bushels per acre, making the 
cost about 23 cents a bushel. But if the crop had averaged 30 bushels only, which, 
on the average is a large crop, it would have cost nearly 54 cents a bushel. And had 
the crop been smaller still, jay 15 bushels per acre, a fair average for the State, it 
would have cost over 71 cents a bushel, which is more thou wheal was then selling 
for. 

There is one apparent error in this acconnt, and that is in the interest charged 
upon the lard : land of su. b richness, drained, worked, and manured as it must b* 



AGRlCrrLTTTRAL TBXT-BOOE. 88 

^ produce such a crop, and with its sharo of the necessary buildings, was at the 
time *orth from $40 to $50 an acre, intriuticatty. Say the smallest sum, ($40,) antt 
the interest charged, instead of being $7,56, ought to have been $18,00 for twelve 
"Months.; but it is usual to charge eighteen months interest on land employed in 
.Rowing wheat, or $72,00, This would still further raise the cost of the grain, on 
tlie farm, without allowing anything for profit, or remuneration for skill, or expen^ 
•ces of marketing. The straw, hofrever, is generally considered as equivalent for the 
-l*tt©r. ^-L. Cunt. Trom. of Stat* JgficuL Soetf. of Mkli., 1850, ^, 4B7.^ 



CHAPTER VII 



RYE .-^(Secale cereale.) 

2'04. Next to Wheat, Rye is most eonsumed by manlsifid ifl 
tliose latitudes wbicL: are too cold for Indian Corn. It is be* 
lieved to be a native of Western or Central Asia. 

M. DeCandoDe says that a M. Koch, who has traversed Auatalia, Ar- 
Jnenia, the Carucasus, and Crimea, affirms that he has found Rye under 
circumstances where it appears to be really spontaneous and native. 
On the mountains of Pont, in the country of Hemschin, upon granite, 
at an elevation of five or six thousand feet, he found our common rye 
along side the road. It was thin in the ear, and about one to two and a 
Jialf inches long. Koone remembered that it had ever been cultivated in 
the neighborhood, and it was not even known as a cereal. 

205. It is cultivfjted, to tbe North of Europe, in Scandina- 
tia, on tbe western side of tbe parallel of latitude of 67 ® N.*, 
Jind on the eastern side to latitude ^5 '^ or 66 "^ N. In Ryssiay 
the polar limit of rye is indicated by tbe pal-aUel of latitude 
2G ^ 30'/ It is extensively cultivated in Europe, forming ths 
chief part of tbe bread of Germany, Poland, Russia, Switzer' 
land, and other countries. In Great Britain, and the southern 
countries of Europe it is little used. In America, it does no 
appear to be grown in Pembina, on Red River, in the Hudson 
Bay Territory, latitude 47 ° N., ^hough wheat, barley, maize, 
tobacco, potatoes, &c., are cultivated with profit. It was in- 
troduced mto the North American colonies soon after their 
settlement by the English,'— into Nova Seotia, 1622; into 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. €5 

New England, 1648, and into SoaUk Virginaa previous to 
that year. 

206. The production of rye in the United States decreased in 
1 850, 4,45 7,000 bushels when compared with 1840; but in New 
York it had been l/icreasec? in 1850 by about 40 per cent. In 
1840 the total product of the countiy was 18,645,567 bushels;; 
in 1850, 14,188,639 bushels. 

The chief Bye producing States are — (1850:) 

BUSHELS. Ij BC8HEI.S. 

Pennsylvania, - - 4,805,160 Connecticut, - - 600,893 
New York, - - - 4,148,182! Ohio, - - - - 425,71S 
Massachusetts, - - 481,02lj Kentucky, - - - 415.07.H 
Virginia, ... - 458,93o!| New Jersey, - - l,25o,57H 
Michigan, - . _ 105,871. 

It is gi'own, more or less, in all the States except California 
and New Mexico ; but, with two exceptions, (Maryland and North 
Carolina,) none give over 200,000 bushels. It has been chiefly 
used for distilling and feeding stock, though bread is made of it 
in some localities. The export in 1650^ wjk 44,152 bbls. of 
flour. 

207. There is only one cultivated species, but several varieties : 
(a,) Common; (b,) Multicole; (q) St John's Day; (d^) Sibe- 
rian ; also, (e^) Spring, (/,) Winter, and (g,) Southern- 

Of the Common (a,) nothing need be saicL The Multicole 
(many rooted,) (b,) was introduced into this country by meaiw; 
of the Patent Office about 1844-5. It was found to produce 
heavy crops, and to stool out very peifectly, — ten to twenty 
fitalks growing from every seed. It also appears to be well 
adapted for high noilheni latitudes. The St John's Day (c,) 
is a native of the Italian Alps, and was introduced into Eng- 
land about ten years ago for soihng purposes. The seed is very 
«mall, dark, and hard, but the straw grows with great i-apidity, 
to a great height, affording a remarkable quantity of green fod- 
der. The Siberian (d,) is a Gennan variety, noted for the gi- 
gantic product of grain and stalk. The grain is large with a 



86 



AORierLTURAfl TBXT-BOQK. 



thin skin, yielding an excellent flour. The other varieties havfe 
arisen from the period of sowing, or climate. 

The yield is from ten to thirty, or more bushels per acre, 
weighing from 48 to 56 lbs. per bushel In Michigan the lecjal 
weisrht of a bushel is 56 lbs. 



2.08. Ultimate analysis of Rye and straw 
gault.) 

Carbon, ... 

Hydrogen, 

Oxygen, 

Nitrogen, 

Ash, . - - « 



(jBomsm- 



GRAra. 

46.35 
5.38 

44.21 
1.69 
2.37 

100.00 



STRAW. 

49.88 
5-58 

40.56 
0.30 
3.S8 

lOO.OO 



209. Inorganic analysis of the grain of Rye. The grain of 
Rye leaves 2.425 per cent of ash, which is thus composed: 

Pbtash, .^ • « 

Soda> ... 

Lime, ... 

Magnesia, 

Oxide of iron, 

Phosphoric acid, - 

Sulphuric acid. 

Silica, . . - 

210. Organic analysis of Rye, dried at 212 ° F. (Horsfot^ 
& KrocTcer.) 



d Fresenius. 
3276 


Bichon. 
11.43 


Mean. 
22.08 


445 


18.89 


11.C7 


2.92 


7.05 


4.93 


1013 


10.57 


10.35 


0.82 


1.90 


1.36 


47 29 


51.81 


49.55 


1.4S 


0.51 


0.98 


0.17 


0.69 


0.43 





1 Kye flour from 1 Rye flour from 
( Vienna. [ Hohenheim. 


1 No. 1. 1 No. 2. 1 SchUf. 1 Sjtauden. 


Gluten and albumeu. 

Starch, 

Woody fibre, guna, sugar. 

Ash, 


11.92 

60.91 

24.74 

1.33 


18.69 17.73 

54.48 \ 45.09 

24.49 35.77 
1.07 2.43 


15.76 

47.42 

35.25 

2.37 




98.90 1 98.73 | 101.02 | 100.80 


Moisture in fresb substance. - | 13.78 | 14.68 | 13.94 | 13.82 



211. It will be observed from the above, that Rye varies. 



A6RICULTXTRAL TEXT-BOOK. 



87 



mucli in its composition according to the soil in wliicli it is 
grown. Hermbstadt experimenting with the grain as he did 
with wheat (§lV7,) found in 100 parts: 









bt 


bo 








io 


bD 




-o 


Mnnored with 


i 

!3 


s 


3 


1 i 


s . 
2 u 


a 
= 1 

at 


p 
■a 


3 

•a 


io5 


t 

3 
§ 

s 




X 

o 


^ 




1 = 


X^ 


a 3 


a 


o 


> 5 


a 


Gluten aad albumen, - 


15.6 


15.6 


16.6 


156 


16.3 


15.1 


14.7 


12.8 


11.4 1 


ll.i! 


Starch, gum, sugar, fat, - 


63.0 


63.1 


62.7 


592 


61.5 


63.1 


60.8 


64 8 66.0 1 


673 


Increase m Rrain, - - 


14 fold. 


I.Sf 


12>^t 


13f 


<)f 


Wif 


llf 


9f 


6f |4f 



212. Inorganic analysis of Rye straw. 100,000 parts of the 
straw, contain 2793 parts of inorganic matter. (Sprengel.) 



Potash, 

Soda, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Alumina, 

Oxide of iron. 



32 
11 

178 

121 

25 



Oxide of manganese. 
Silica, 

Sulphuric acid, 
Phosphoiic acid, 
Chloriue, 



2297 

170 

51 

17 

2793 



213. The flour of rye is not white like that of wheat, but has 
a pretty strong, grayish brown tint, and does not bind so fii-mly 
with water. It yields a short, much less tough dough, out of 
which it is impossible to seperate the gluten from the starch by 
washing with water. The cause of this is probably to be sought 
in some peculiarity of the gluten of rye. It contains very little 
fibrin, and on the contrary a nitrogenous substance, which Heldt 
has ascertained to be vegetable gelatin. The starch is of the 
same nature as that contained in other seeds. 

214. Dombaste found that 100 parts of rye flour yielded, 
when baked, 145 lbs. of bread, or nearly the same quantity as is 
yielded by northern wheat. Johnston found rye bread, when 
leavened, to lose 44, when yeasted, 46 per cent, of water. 100 
lbs. of flour containing naturally 1 6 per cent, of water, must 
then have yielded from 150 to 160 lbs. of bread. 

215. The SOILS best adapted for rye are of a light, sandy 



OS AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

character. As wheat is the cereal of the clay, so rye is the co- 
leal of the sandy soils. It will, however, grow well on all soils 
if rendered sufficiently friable, and not dcinip. 

216. As will be observed by the analysis, (§208,) the princi- 
pal inorganic constituents are Potash, Soda, Magnesia, and Phos- 
phoric acid, but the per centage of ash is very small, rai-ely, if 
ever, above 2-^ per cent, of the dry grain. Wood ashes, either 
unleached or leached are the most available manures. 

217. Rye is so\vn as a winter and spring crop, — generally as 
the former. One plowing is given and the seed dragged in. 
If more care is taken in the preparation of the soil the crop will 
be larger. It is a custom in some localities to sow rye among 
standing corn, hoeing it in, and leaving the ground as level as 
possible. After the corn is removed, the rye is rolled. Hai-- 
rowing and rolling in the spring, are recommended. 

218. The time of sowing in the fall is, in the Northern States, 
from 20th August to 20th September. From 1^ to two bush- 
els of seed are so'mti, the richest lands demanding most. In 
spring it should be sown as early as the climate will permit. 

219. In other respects, the culture, har^'esting, &c., resemble 
those of wheat. 

220. If cut before fully ripe, the grain makes better flour, 
and in larger quantity ; but if intended for seed it should bo 
fully ripened. 

221. In some countries, rye and wheat are sotsti together. 
In England this mixture is called Mesling, Mescelin, or Mas- 
Un, (from an old French word mester, to mingle.) 

222. Rye is frequently sowti for fodder, being either pastured 
during the winter and spring, or cut green for soiling stock in 
stables. It affords a large amount of valuable food, and the 
crop of grain is improved by pasturing to a certain point. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 89 

223. It is also employed to plow in as a green manure. In 
the lighter class of wheat soils, it is recommended, after harvest- 
ing the wheat, to plow, and sow rye as early as possible ; pasture 
with sheep and young stock through the winter, and then plow 
in for a spring crop. This system, alternated Avith two or more 
years of grass or clover, will rapidly restore unpoverished soil?. 
For this purpose the Multicole, and probahly St. John's Day 
variety are the best, but we are not aAvare that the latter has yet 
been tried in the United States. 

224. There are no weeds peculiar to rye; but those which 
are troublesome to wheat Avill generally be found among this 
grain, according to the season in wliich it is sown. 

225. The only parasitic fungus affecting rye is Ergot (Sde- 
rotium clavis.) 

Ergot is a kind of spur which issues from the grain of rje. It is not 
a fungus itself, but a morbid growth caused by the existence of minute 
fungi in the grain. It is not confined to rye alone, but has been ob- 
served occasionally in wheat and barley, and some of the grasses. It 
is a poison when eaten in bread, producing a spontaneous gangrene, 
called ergotism. It is also a powerful medicine, for which purpose it was 
first used in the United States, in 1807. The composition of the ash of 
ergot is as follows : {Engelmann.) 



Potash, 


45.38 


Sulphuric acid, 


0.02 


Soda, 


16.79 


Chlorine, 


2.36 


Lime, 


1.68 


Silica, 


15.G0 


Magnesia, 


5.34 






Oxide of iron. 


2.34 




104.95 


Phosphoric acid, - 


15.44 







Per centage of Ash, 


- 


- 


0.36 



It is chiefly found where rye grows in damp adhesive soils. Ani- 
mals should not be allowed to eat it; as some will do when it is mixed 
wiih grain. 

226. There are no insects pecuHar to this cereal. 

227. The straw, owing to its length and stiffness, is useful for 
many economical purposes, but not as good for feeding stock as 
some other soils, unless cut and bruised. 



90 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



227« Petri gives an experiment made to ascertain the proper depth 
for planting rye, as follows : 

No. of plants that came up. 

%th8. 

all. 

%ths. 

^ths. 

% 

Kths. 
^Ih. 

The root stalk forms itself always next below the surface of the 
ground ; and if we place the grain deep, it must first put out its sprouts 
to the surface, and form its side branches in a nearer connection with the 
air. "We never find that the sucker-roots are arranged from below to 
above, but the contrary. 



epth of eeed, 


Appeared above ground iu 


^ inch. 


11 


days. 


r " 


12 


" 


2 inches. 


18 


" 


3 " 


20 


u 


4 « 


21 


«< 


5 " 


22 


" 


6 " 


23 


u 



CHAPTER VIII. 



BARLEY .—(Hordeum.) 

228. The native country is unknown. 

229. Barley is cultivated further north than any other of the 
grains. In Europe, its northern limits are as follows : 

Orkney and Shetland Islands, - Lat. 61 => N. 

Faroe Islands, - - . - " 61 =" to 61 "= 15' N". 

Western Lapland, - • - " 70 => N. 

Russia (White Sea,) - - - " 67 » to 68 =" N. 

Archangel, - - - " 66« N". 

Central Siberia. - - - - « 58 ® to 59 » K". 

It cannot be grown in Iceland, lat. 63 ° 30' to 66 * N. 

In summer mean temperature, the northern limit varies be- 
tween 46 ° 4' and 49 ® F., in the latter being injured by rains. 
Its northern hmit, in America, does not appear to have been as- 
certained. 

230. It is cultivated in the four quarters of the globe : in 
Syria and Egypt for more than 3,000 years. 

231. It was introduced into the United States by Gosnold in 
1602, and by colonists into Virginia in 1611. By the year 
1648, it was raised in abundance in that colony, but it after- 
wards diminished in quantity. 

The annual amount of Barley grown in United States was, in 
1840, 4,161,504 bushels; in 1850, 5,167,016 bushels. Th& 
principal States that produce it are, (1850:) 



92 AGEICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK- 



New York, - 3,585,059 

Ohio, - - 354,358 

Wisconsin, - 209,6')2 



Pennsylvania, - 165,584 

Maine, - - 151,731 

Massachusetts, - 112,385 



Michigan, - - - 75,249 

All tlie otlier States, except Florida, Louisiana, and Oregon, 
raise more or less, tkougli four of tliera did not produce a thou- 
sand bushels each in 1850. There is little or none exported. 
It is chiefly consumed in the manufacture of malt and spiritous 
liquors, while some is fed to hogs and o.her stock. 

232. Six species or varieties are cultivated: 

1. Hordeum distlckum. — Two-rowed Barley. 

2. " gymno-distickum. — Two-rowed naked Barley. 

3. " disticho-zeocriton. — Two-rowed Sprat, or Battle- 

dore Barley. 

4. " hexastichwn. — Six-rowed Barley. 

5. " gymno-hexasticum. — Six-rowed naked Barley. 

6. " hexasticho-zeocriton. — Six-rowed Sjirat, or Bat- 
tledore Barley. 

Of these again, there are some thirty sub-varieties, such as 
the Chevalier Barley ; the Hudson's Bay, &c. 

The two-rowed variety is most commonly cultivated. The 
sub-varieties are distinguished by the quality of their grain, 
their period of ripening, and productiveness. In mild climates 
barley is sown, like wheat, in the fall, and is known as winter-bar- 
ley. Occasionally the color of the coroUa is black. In the 
naked barley, the corolla is not attached to the grain, and it 
thus resembles wheat. It was introduced into England in 
1768, and is knowa in the United States, but in neither coun- 
try does it appear to be much cultivated. The SjJrat Barley 
has the spike short and conical, the awns long and spreading, 
and the seeds more compressed than in the first sort. The 
straw, also, is very short. It is little cultivated. In six-roioed 
Barley, three rows of flowers on each side of the spike are fer- 
tile, and consequently three rows of grains on each side are 



AGRICULTtTRAL TEXT-BOOTC, 93 

perfected. The cliief sub-variety of this is known as Bere or 
Bigg. It is more Lardy and productive tlien the two-roAvedy 
and is used for fall sowing. In Europe it is much cultivated; 
in the United States but little. The yield of Barley is from 
twenty to sixty bushels per acre, weighing from 45 to 55 lbs, 
per bushel according to variety. In Michigan the legal weight 
of a bushel is 48 lbs. 

233. Ultimate analysis of Barley, dry (A,) and Avith water, 
(B.) (Thompson.) 





A 


B 


Carbon, ■• 


46.11 


41.64 


Hydrogen, - . » . 


6.65 


0.02 


Nitrogen, - . - - 


1.91 


1.81 


Oxygen, 


42.24 


38.28 


Ash, .... 


3.09 


2.79 


Water, .... 




9.46 




100.00 


lOO.OO 


233. Inoi-ganic analysis of Barley, 


(Thompson.) 




Silica, . . . - 


. 


29.67 


Phosphoric acid, . - - - 


• 


36.80 


Sulphuric acid, ... 


- 


O.IG 


Chlorine, - - - - - 


. 


0.15 


Peroxide of iron, ... 


- 


0.83 


Lime, . . . - - 


- 


3.23 


Magnesia, .... 


. 


4.30 


Potash, - - - . . 


. 


16.00 


»oda, .... 


. 


8.86 



Mean of ten analyses of Barley grain, ( Way db Ogaden,) 
from calcareous soils, Dorset, England : 

Ashes in lOO parts, in crop as taken from the ground, - 2.34 

Ashes in artificially dried plants, .... 2.43 

Potash, 19.77 

Soda, ...--.. 3.93 

]ilagnesia, . - 4 « « . * 8 55 

Lime, -.••■*••. 2.58 
Phosphoric acid, * » • * • '35.30 



^4 AOillCULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 

Sulphuric acid, - - - - • » 1.03 

Silica, 26.49 

Peroxide of iron, .-.--- 1.43 

Chloride of sodium, - » » - - 0.47 

III some specimens the chloride of sodium 'ataounted to 1.01, and 
•chloride of potassium to 5.65 per ceut. 

235. Organic analysis of Barley dried at 212 ® Fv (Kroch- 
ler and Horsford, and Thompson.) 





Winter Barley Jerusnlem Bjir- 
tlnbenh<'i#. ley Hohenheitti 


Scrotch Barley 
Scotland . 


Gluten anu albumen, - 
Starch, . - - - 
Husk, Gum, Sugar, - 
Ash. - - . - 


17.70 14.72 

38.31 42.34 

42.33 42.46 

5 52 284 


15.24 

3986 

4B19 

326 


Moisture in the first urain. 1 13,8U | 16.79 | 12.71 



236. Barley has been less perfectly examined than any of 
tte otli-er cereals, except oats, and the nature of the gluten con- 
tained in them is totally unknown All that can be said with 
certainty upon this point is confined to the observation that the 
gluten of these two grains is mechanically separated with much 
o-reater difficulty than that of either wheat or rye ; that by the 
ao^ncy of some other substance in the flour, it is almost whol=- 
}y dissolved in water, and is much less abundant than in either 
t)f the other two. It is also probable that it contains but little 
fibrin, and resembles in this respect the gluten of rye* 
(Knapp.) 

837. Hermbstadt, in experiinenting with Barley, found that 
the action of nitrogenous manures tends rather to increase tbe 
crop than to the production of gluten* 

238. According to Proust, the greater part of the non-nitro» 
genous constituent in Barley is not starch, although a substance 
similar to it, but insoluble in boiling water, which he called ko^ 

dein^ 



A 


B 


43.8 


70.8 


21.0 


7.7 


0.8 


0.4 


7.2 


10.4 


3.3 


1.3 


0.27 


1.4 


8.9 






I.l 


3.1 


2.0 


11.7 


3.0 


— 


2.0 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 95 

239. Analysis of Barley straw, (A,) (Fresenius) and awn, 
(B.) (Way.) 

Sand and Silica, . - . - 

Potash. . . - . • 

Soda, ..... 

Lime, ..... 

Magnesia, . - - - . 

Oxide of iron, .... 

Chloride of Potassium, ^ . . . 

Chloride of Sodium, J 

Phosphoric acid, .... 

Sulphuric acid, . - - - 

Carbonic acid, .... 

240. The value of Barley depends mucli on the relative 
hardness of its husk, and this appears to be influenced by soil 
and manure in its culture. A soft thin skin adapts it better for 
malting, and a light chalk soil is best suited to produce it of 
this character. Fromberg has ascertained that the hard Barley 
contains less gluten and albumen than the softer kinds : thua 
be found : 

Nitrogen equal 
Water. to gluten, &o. 

Soft or malting Barley to contain pr. ct., - 13.55 10.93 

Flinty or Pot Barley, . - 13.4 8.03 

The effect of soil upon the Barley crop is known to all practical farnr 
ers— so that, in Great Britain, the terms barley-land and wheat-land are 
the usual designations for light and heavy soils. On clay lands the pro. 
duce of barley i.s greater, but it is of a coarser quality and does not malt 
so well, — on loams it is plump and full of meal, and on light chalk soils 
the crop is light, but the grain is thin in the skin and of a rich color, 
and well adapted for malting. {Johyislon ,) 

241. Malt is Barley which has been made to germinate by 
moisture and Avarmth, and afterwards dried, by which the vital- 
ity of the seed is destro}ed. By this process, a peculiar nitro- 
genous principle, called diastase, is produced. This, though it 
does not constitute more than l-500th part of the malt, serves 



96 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

to affect tlie conversion of the starcli of the seed into dextrine 
and grape sugar. 100 lbs. of barley yield about 80 lbs. of malt, 
part of wliicli difference is the loss of the water previously con- 
tained in the barley. Thompson gives the following compara- 
tive table of bai'ley ; and malt made from the same grain ; show- 
ing the change which takes place in the organic constituents : 





Barley. 


Malt. 


Carbon - - - . . . 

Hydrogen 

Kitrogen ...--- 

Oxygen 

Ash 

Water 


41.64 
6.02 
1.81 

37.66 
3.41 
9.46 


33.95 
5.31 
0.88 

34.46 
1.34 
4.06 




100.00 


80.00 



Or the loss sustained by barley in malting may be stated aa 
follows : 



Water, 

Saline matter, 
Organic matter, 



6.00 per cent. 
0.48 
12.52 



242. Barley is rarely or never used in America and Great 
Britain as bread, but it is eaten in soups and given to the sick 
as Pot and Pearl Barley, in which condition it is considered 
very nourishing. This fonn is produced, by rubbing the grains 
in an appropriate machine, till they are deprived of the husk 
and outer coats, and become spherical. Such barley is generally 
imported into the United States from Scotland, but there is no 
reason why it shoiild not be prepared here. A porridge made 
of barley meal is used in Scotland. 

243. The quantities of mineral matter removed from the acre 
by a crop of 40 Imperial Bushels of Barley, and 2650 lbs. of 
straw are as follows : 



AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 



97 



Totash 
Soda 

Magnesia - 
Phosphoi'ic acid 
Sulphuric acid - 
Chlorine 



By the Grain. 



7.24 lbs. 
4.32 " 
3.97 " 
20.74 " 
0.0.5 " 
0.02 " 



36.34 lbs. 



By the Straw. 



10.29 lbs. 
0.92 " 
5.25 " 
5.02 " 
2.66 " 
1.58 " 



25.72 lbs. 



Total. 



17.53 lbs. 
5.24 " 
9.22 " 

25.76 " 
2.71 " 
1.60 " 



62.06 lbs. 



244. As lias been ah-eady observed, Barley succeeds best 
on lands more sandy and lighter tlian those adapted for wheat, 
yet containing a good proportion of calcareous matter. In the 
United States it is always sown in the spring ; and in the North- 
em States, the earlier it is in the ground the better, so that it 
may have a long period of growth. Unless the soil is very- 
light, it is well to plow^ in the tall, and again in the spring, and 
to render the earth mellow^ by the use of the cultivator and 
harrow before sowing. For a good crop the land should be 
rendered rich by previous manuring ; but barn-yard manure ap- 
plied directly to the crop is supposed to be injurious. From 
two to three bushels of seed are generally sown to the acre ; and 
the land should be rolled immediately, or, Avhich is perhaps pre- 
ferable, as soon as the young plant is from one to two inches 
high. The productiveness of barley appears to depend much 
upon rolling. Judge Buel, of Albany, N. Y., recommends 
steeping the seed in a weak solution of Saltpetre (Nitrate of 
Potash or Soda,,) for twenty-four hours; and some use the 
black water Vt'hich_ collects in barn-yards around manure-heaps 
for the same purpose. 

245. Barley is known to be ripe by the disappearance of the 
reddish hue on the ear; and by the ears beginning to drooj) 
against the stem. Unless intended for seed, it should be cut 
before it is fully ripe, both on account of the better quality and 
weight of the grain, and to prevent waste by shelling. 



08 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

246. Harvesting of barley is the same as of otter grains, ex- 
cept that it sometimes happens that the straw is too short for 
cradling, when it may be mowed and raked into bundles to dr}- , 

247. The straw is used for fodder and litter, but for the for- 
mer purpose is not so good as wheat and oat straw. 

248. It is the best grain with which to sow grass and clover 
seed. 

249. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. 

250. The only parasitic fungus which usually attacks barley 
is the smut ('" Black Heads^^) Uredo segetum, (§197, c,) but in 
some parts of the United States this has proYed very injurious, 
especially on the six-rowed varieties. 

251. In New England, barley has, at times, siiffered severely 
from the Joint-worm (Eurytoma,) (§201, b, 2.) Other insects 
may probably injure the crop, but they do not appear to have 
been described. 



CHAPTER IX 



OATS r-'-Jivencb. 



1152. The Oat is supposed to be a native of Asia. A specks 
5s found wild in CalifornixV. 

253-. Tke Northern limits of iMs grain iii Eiirope appear to 
fee in 

Scotland^ - - - - Lak 58 ° 40' N. 

Norway^ • w . > Lat. 56 ® " 

Sweden^ .... Lat. 63 ® 80' « 

tlussia, w -. . V Lat. 62 ® 30' « 

It is extensively cultivated in the Nortfeem, but not in tbd 
Southern parts of Euro}>e. It grows well in Bengal, India^ 
lat. 25 ° N^ Ift America it is cultivated as far as settlements 
extend Northwards^ It was introduced into the United States 
•at the same time as Rye. In this country it is confined prin^ 
vipally to the middle, western, and northern States. Its profit- 
nble production would appear to depend much on the frequen- 
•cy of rain during its growths 

254^ The total produce of the United States in 1840 Wfss 
123,0V1,.341 bushels, in 1850, 146,678,879 bushek 

The chief oat-producing States are (1850;) 
JfewYork. - 26.552.814 bush.! Illinois, - - 10,087,941 biisb. 



Pennsylvania, - 21,538,150 
Oliia, . - 13„472,742 
Virginia, •• - 10,179,U45 



Kentucky, - - 8,20l,3U 
rennessee, - 7,703,086 
Misssouri, - - 5,278,079 



Michigan, - 2,866,056 bush. 

All the other States produce more or less,— fifteen of them 
from one to four millions of bushels^ With the exception of 



100 AGftlCt'LTtRAL TEXT-BOOK. 

about 60,000 bushels used in making liquors, tlie whole is coft' 
sumed in feeding stock. There is scarcely any exported, 
255. Five species are cultivated: 

1. Avena strigosa. — Bristle-pointed Oat, 

2. Avena brevis. — Short Oat. 

3. Avena saliva. — Common Oaf. 

4. Avena orientalis. — Tartarian Oat^ 

5. Avena nuda. — Naked Oat. 

These again are divided into many varieties. 

The first two are of infei-ior quality, but hardy, being culti- 
vated in the mountainous parts, the one of Scotland, the other 
of France. The common oat is best kno^vn, and has been much 
improved by careful culture. The Tartarian oat, has its pan- 
icles shorter than the last, nearty of equal length, all on the same 
side of the rachis (flower stalk) and bearded. It is so hardy 
v& to thrive in soils and climates where the other grains cannot 
be i-aised. It is much cultivated in England and not at all in 
Scotland. " It is a coarse grain more fit for liorse feed than i'-* 
make into meal." (Stephens.) The corolla is frequently 
black. The naked oat^ like wheat and naked barley^ has the 
corolla detached from the seed. It has long been cultivated in 
Europe, and it is said to be productive, and the meal to be fine. 
The popular varieties such as the Potato,' Hopetown, Georgian, 
Siberian, Dyock oats, <kc., belong to the common oat, (3) 

256. In Scotland the oat yields very large crops, from 36 to 
114 bushels per English acre. In the United States, the crop 
pi-obably does not much exceed 30 bushels per acre, except in 
very favorable localities ; but 90 bushels per acre have been 
raised, and prize crops of 60 to VS bushels are not uncommon. 
The soil and climate of Michigan are not favorable to it. The 
weight, per bushel, varies from 30 to 48 lbs., according to varie- 
ty and culture. In ^Michigan, the legal weight of a bushel i? 
32 lbs. 



AGRICUlTTTRAiL TEXT-BOOK. 



101 



Stephens says that in Scotland : 

The potato oat, weighing 47 lbs. per bushel, gives 806,144 gmius per 
bushel. 

The Siberian early oat, weighing 46 lbs. per bushel, gives 011,792 
grains per bushel. 

White Tartarian oat, weighing 42 lbs. per bushel, gives 731,136 grains 
per bushel. 

2o7. Ultimate analysis of the grain (A,) and straw (B,) oi' 
oats (Boussingault.) One part of dried oats leaves 0.0398 of 
ash : one part of straw leaves 0.0509 of ash. 



Carbon, 

Hydrogen, 

Oxygen, 

I^itrogea, 

Ash, 



A 


B 


51.09 


50.25 


. 6.44 


5.48 


36.25 


38.80 


2.24 


0.38 


398 


5.0!^ 



100.00 



100.00 



258- Inorganic analysis of oat grain. ( Way <£* Ogsdeiu 
and Norton.) 











^ 


S 


93 


CS 


C3 




ja 








£^ 




C X ^ 


3 




"3 
O 


n 


m 


'5 


Og 


l^ 


-!! 






s 
1 


1 


"S 

o 

•a 

B 


11 


5 o 


=1 = 


° w 2 


o o ■» 

= 2 3 




g* 


C3 

1 


A 

£ 


1^ 


O - 

a 








Achesin inOp.-vrtsincrop > 
as taken from jrround j 


2.27 


2.43 


2.65 


2.22 


2.14 


2.90 


2.18 


6.7tf 


Ashes in artificially dried 1 
lilants, J 
Potash 


2.50 


2.73 


2.97 


— 


- 


3.02 




— 


17.80 


19.70 


24.30 


21.22 


31.15 


16.76 


26.18 


8.13 


Soda - 


.3.84 


1.35 


5.51 


— 


— 


2.49 


— 





Maj^nesia - - - 


7.3.-5 


8.25 


8.26 


11.26 


8.64 


7.70 


9.95 


l.'S 


Lime - 


3.14 


1.31 


2.65 


6.69 


5.21 


3.92 


6.95 


S.I.-i 


Phosphoric acid - 


26.46 


18.87 


14.49 


.38.48 


49.19' 


18.19 


43.84 


1.54 


Sulphuric acid 


l.IO 


0.10 


1.74, 


18.36 


2.54 


1.29 


10.45 


6.46 


Silica 


38.48 


50.03 


41.86 


3.60 


1.73 


47.08 1 2 67 


76.16 


Peroxide of iron 


0.49 


0.27 


0.69 


— 


0.80 


0.64 


0.40 


1.33 


Chloride of sodium 


0.92 


0.07 


0.45 


— 


— 


0.20 


— 




Chloride of potassiUBi - 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


0.14 


— 


— 



259. Inorganic analysis of oat straw, (Mean of Levi and 
JBottssinyault) 



102 



AGMCUtTtTRAL TEXT-BOOTC* 



Potash, - . - - . l&.l^ 

Soda, -..-.. 9.69 

lime, . - . - . aOT 

Magnesia,. . » . - - . 3.73 

Oxide of iron, _ - - - 1.83; 

Pliospboiicacid, - - - - - 2.56 

Sulpburig acid, - . - - . 3.26f 

Chlorine,. ...... 3.2S 

Silica, - - > - - - 48.42! 

100.00 

The Hutrkive matter aflfbrded by aB aicre of oat straw ■weig^bing2700 lbs. 

is, of busk or woody fibre 1210 lbs. ; of starch, sugar, <kc., 950 lbs. ; of 

gluten, &c., 38 lbs.; of oil or fat, aad of saline matter 115 lbs. (Ste- 

f)ken&.) 

260. Organic analysis of fo^r varieties of Seotct oats, (Nor-^ 
ton ami Fromherg,) viz : Hopetown oats, Nortkwnherland„ 
(A,) Hopetown oats, Ay^hire, (B,) Hopetown oats Ayrshire 
(C,) Potato oats, Northumherland (D.) 





A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


Starch 


65.24 


64.80 


64.79 


65.60 


Sugar 


4.51 


2.58 


2.09 


0.80 


Gum - - - 


2.10 


2.41 


2.12 


2.28 


Oil 


5.44 


6.97 


6.41 


7.38 


Avenin, ) ., 


C 15.76 


16.26 


17.72 


16.29 


Albumen r'*^*^g^"T 


< 0.46 


1.29 


1.76 


2.17 


Gluten, ^compounds, 


i 2.47 


1.46 


1-33 


1.45 


Epidermis (or skin) - 


1.18 


2.39 


2.84 


2.28 


Alkaline salts and loss, 


2.84 


1.84 


0.94 


1.75 




100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 



From these analysis it appears that the oat is very rich im 
oily matters and flesh-forming compounds. 

Avenin is a substance resembling castin (or cheese when chemically 
pure) precipitated by acetic acid from the aqueous solution of oat meal. 
It appears to differ but slightly from albumen in its ultimate composi- 
tion ; and in its utility, as food, it is probably rather more nourishing. 

2S1. The proportious of nitrogen aud protein { flesbforming} com- 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 103 

pounds in nine specimens of oats have been determined as follows: 
(^Norton.) 



Hopetown oats Potato oats 



I Gate 
Oats from Wig- froni 
tonshire. Scotl'd N.Y. 



NitroRea, 

I'rotein compounfls. 



•i.VM 2.351 2.2s( 2761 2.»2 2 891 5.611 2.491 3 00 
I4.(ll'4.78 14.04 17.361 17.77 18.24 22.01 16.66 18 86 



The relative proportions of nitrogen and protein compounds in the 
husk, (A,) grain (B,) and whole oat (C,) are as follows : 

A B C 

Nitrogen, - - 0.30 282 2.13 

Protein compounds, • - 1.88 17.77 13.72 

The mean of eight samples of Scotch oats gave Mr. Norton 

Grain, ..... 76.28 

Husk, -.--,. 23.68 

The maximum of husk being 28.2, and the minimum 22.0. Presh 
oats contain from 16 to 21 per cent of water. 

The organic composition of the Husk is : 

Hopetown Oat. Potato Oat. 

Oil. .... 1.50 0.92 

Sugar and gum, ... 0.47 0.75 

Gluten and coagulated albumen, - 1.88 1.88 

Cellulose, .... 89.68 89.46 

Saline matter, (ash,) - - 6.47 6.99 

262, Animal manures increase the crop and weight of the 
husk rather than the proportion of gluten. 

263. In America, oats are used solely for feeding animals, 
and for this purpose they are equal to any other grain ; com- 
bining the largest amount of useful qualities. For horses do- 
ing hard work, or where great speed is required nothing can 
replace them ; and as the proportion of oil which they contain 
is but little inferior to that in Indian corn, while it is probably 
more readily digested and received into the system, they are 
used with great advantage for fattening hogs and other stock. 
For this purpose, however, owing to the hard husk, they ought 
to bo crushed, and ai-e preferable if boiled. 

Where crushing or grinding cannot be effected, boiling serves nearly 
as good a purpose. 



lO'i AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

The peculiar form of tlie casein or aveniii appears to gn'e 
oats a nourishing power httle inferior to that of animal food. 

In Ireland, Scotland, and other countries, oat meal constitutes almost 
the entire food of the majority of the people ; and those who live on it 
are not only phjsically perfect, but are able to undergo great exertion, 
and bear up against severe exposure and hardship. Owing to the small 
propoition of gluten, yeast-bread cannot be made ■with oat meal as with 
wheat flour, and it is usually eaten boiled, or made into thin cakes, dried 
in the air. Before grinding, it is necessary to kiln-diy oats; and they 
are ground in a mill constructed for the purpose, the mill-stones being 
different from those used in flouring mills. 

264. Oats Avill grow upon almost any kind of soil, but the 
clays, and loams that are sufficiently retentive of moisture are 
the most favorable. 

Owing to this facility of cultivation less pains are frequently 
bestowed upon this crop than upon others; though it will well 
repay proper culture. 

There is a prevalent notion that oats partictilarly exhaust the 
soil on which they are grown, but we beheve it to be a mistake. 
The form of the roots, however, predisposes the soil to collect 
in clods, and hard lumps, which are afterwards broken with dif- 
ficulty, and unless these are carefully disintegrated, they may 
probably aflfect the succeeding crop injuriously. Barley, on the 
contrary, seperates the soil, rendering it mellow with its roots. 
As a mechanical agent, therefore, the roots of the oat plant may 
act unfavorably. The different varieties, containing such dif- 
ferent proportions of organic constituents, are adapted to dif- 
ferent soils and circumstances. 

265. A crop of 60 bushels of oats, and 3800 lbs. of straw- 
takes from the acre of soil the following quantities : 

Potash and soda, 
Magnesia, 
Phosphoric acid, 
Sulphuric acid, - 
Chlorine, - 



3v the jrrain. 


By the straw. Total. 


10.88 lbs. 


64 78 lbs. 75 66 lbs 


3.52 " 


8.95 " 1247 « 


14.48 " 


5.38 " 19.86 " 


5 28 " 


9.95 " 15 23 " 


0.35 " 


8.51 " 8 86 « 


34.51 lbs. 


97.57 lbs. 132.08 lbs. 




(Stephens.) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 105 

266. In the northern States, oats are always sown in spring, 
from the commencement of vegetation to the begining of Juno. 
They arc a favorite crop to sow upon plowed sod. The quan- 
tity of seed varies from two to four bushels an acre ; in Scot- 
land six bushels are sowoi ; und<jr most circumstances, the larger 
quantity is preferable. The seed should be well harrowed in 
and rolled. 

267. The best time for harvesting is before the grain is quite 
ripe, and while the straw is partially green. Oats may be cut 
with a sickle, cradle, sc)i;he, or machine ; but should be left for 
a few days in swath, before binding, when the grain will ma- 
ture. Oat«. thus cut before they arc quite ripe are larger, and 
heavier, while the straw, as fodder, is more nutritious. Oats, 
cut as above, do not appear to be inferior in any respect. 
(§312.) 

268. Oat straw is more esteemed for fodder than that of 
wheat, barley, or rye. According to experiments made in Ger- 
many by Viet, 200 lbs. of oat straw with the chaff are equiva- 
lent to 100 lbs. of good hay, though, for the United States, this 
estimate is probably too low. If not too ripe when cut, and if 
saved in good condition, cattle in stables can be kept during 
winter in improving condition uj^on this straw alone. Late ex- 
periments in Scotland have proved oat-straw to be fully equal to 
hay for animals fattening on roots. 

169. In this country, there is no insect peculiarly injurious 
to oats. In common with other grains, it occasionally suffers 
from the Wire worm. 

270. Smut (Black heads,) (JJredo Segetum,) appears to be 
the only fungais to which it is generally subject, and this, rarely, 
to any great extent. 

271. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. 

In soils wbere Wild Mustard (Sinapis arvensis,) and Wild Radish 
(Raphanus raphanistrum,) are abundant, oats are perbaps more seri- 



106 AGEICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

ously injured than any other grain. As many persons are ignorantbow 
to root out these weeds, it may be -well to copy the following rules by 
a late French writer in the Annalcs de I' agriculture, who had been en- 
tirely succes.sful in clearing a farm overrun with them. 

1. Plow very deep, so as to give all the seeda within reach of the 
plow facilities for germinating. 

2. Harrow the ground till every clod is b'.oken, for the seeds are of- 
ten retained in clods, and only germinate when these are disintegrated 
by rain, &c., or by artificial means. 

3. Cultivate two hoed crops before grain is sown, and do not allow a 
single plant of mustard to go to seed. 

4. For the third crop, grow oats, drilled at a sufficient distance to per- 
mit hand hoeing between the rows. 

By using these means, and not allowing a single plant to seed, the 
worst fields may be cleared in three or four years. It is important 
that the first plowing should be deeper th.nn any succeeding one, as the 
eoil frequently contains the seeds to a great depth, which will germin- 
ate as soon as exposed to the air. 

Of course it is requisite that all grain sown should be quite free from 
the seeds of the mustard. 

272. Common salt, from four to eight bushels per acre— spread three 
or four days before the seed is sown, and lightly harrowed in, has been 
found an useful manure for oats, especially at a distance from the sea. 
It supplies the soda, chlorine, and magnesia ; it retains moisture in the 
soil ; it acts as a solvent on the other constituents of the earth; and gen- 
erally strengthens the straw. We warmly recommend a tiial of it in 
those parts of Michigan where the oat crop is apt to fail. Wood ashes 
also (uncleached) are a valuable manure, especially in sandy soils, for 
oats. 



CHAPTER X. 



INDIAN CORN.— MAIZE.— Zea Mays. 

273. The origin of tlie word "Maize" is from the Haytien 
mahiz. This grain is a native of the American continent, and 
was unknown to the rest of the world till the discoveries of 
Columbus. It is still found growing wild from the Rocky 
Mountains to Paraguay, but in this state, instead of having each 
grain naked, it is completely covered with glumes or husks. 
A variety of the wild corn has been cultivated of late years in 
the northern States, under the name of " Texas corn." This 
grain was found by the first European explorers of the contin- 
ent to be everywhere cultivated by the natives. 

Only one species baa usually been recognized in ibis country, but 
tbc late M. Bonafous, director of tbe Royal Agricultural Garden of Tu- 
rin, in bis Hisioire nalurelle agricole et economique du Mais, describes 
four distinct species, viz : 

1 . Zea Mays — witb leaves entire. 

2. Zea caragua, witb leaves denticulated. 

3. Zea hirta, witb bairy leaves. 

4. Zea euythrolepis, witb grains compressed, and red glumes — 
(busks.) 

From tbese, but especially tbe first, all the varieties at present culti- 
vated have sprung. 

274. It has a wide range of temperature in America, flour- 
ishing from about 40 ^ of Southern to beyond the 45 '^ of 
Northern latitude. In Mexico its highest limits vary from 2000 
to 8000 feet above the level of the sea ; and the time 
necessary for it to ripen diflers from six weeks to seven months, ac- 



108 



AGEICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



cording to the mean temperature. In Europe, it is grown from 
the shores of the Mediterranean as far north as the Nether- 
lands. The region of cultivation appears to be gradually ex- 
tending further north; probably by the origin of new and 
liardy varieties. It is also groAvn in Northern, Southern, and 
Western Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, the Sandwich 
Islands, the Azores, the Madeiras, the Canaries, and numerous 
other ocean islands. With the exception of Rice, it is the food 
of a larger number of human beings than any other grain. 

275. In the United States, it was first cultivated by the Eng- 
lish on James River, Virginia, 1608; the Indian mode being 
closely followed. Since then it has been everywhere. a. favorite 
crop, and annually a Ittrgev quajitity is produced. The increase 
from 1840 to 1850 was 214,000,000 bushels, equal to 56 per 
cent, over the former period. In New England it has increased 
nearly 50 per cent. ; and no State has retrograded. 

The following is the production of the most important States 
according to the census of 1840 and 1850: 



"New York, 

Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, 

Virginia, 

Norih Carolina, 

Georgia, 

Alabama, 

Mississippi, 

Tennessee, 

Kentucky, 

Ohio, 

Indiana, 

Illinois, 

Mif-sonri, 

Micbigan, 



10,972,286 
14,240.022 

8,233,086 
34,577,591 
23,893,763 
20,905,122 
20,947,004 
1.3,161,237 
44,986,188 
39,847,120 
33,668,144 
28,155,887 
22.634,211 
17,332,524 

2,277,039 



17,858,400 
19,835.214 
11,104,631 
35,254,319 
27,941,051 
30,080.093 
28,754.048 
22,446,552 
52,276,223 
58,675,591 
59,078,695 
52.964,363 
57,646,984 
36.214,537 
5.641,420 



Total production of the United States in 1850, 592,326,612, 
bushels, which at the low average of ten cents per bushel on 
the farm, gives an annual return of $59,232,661 in this one 
crop alone. The corn crop, however, represents not only the 
vegetable food of man, but also animal food in the shape of 



AGRICTLTURAI. TEXT-BOeK, lOD 

polk atid beef ; and also various manufactures, suci as oil, stea- 
fine, bristles, Prussian Blue, &c. ; and large quantities of vari- 
able manure, in the shape .of reftise and otial. In one or other 
of these forms, a large amount of corn is annually exported to 
foreign countries ; and the industry of the United States greatly 
depends upon it. The same evils, however, which attached to 
the growth of the potato in Ireland, maj^, it is feared, hereafter 
follow the great production of corn in those States where it is 
most easily raised. 

276. The varieties are very numerous, depending upon the 
character of the soil and climate, from the small shrubby corn 
of Northern Canada to the gigantic stalks of the Southern 
States ; and the composition and nutritive qualities of the grain 
vary in like proportion. In practice this is a very important 
fact) as the nutritive value of corn is constantly varying according 
to circumstances. 

(A.) The Phosphates differ in quantity according to variety. Sweet 
Corn appears to contain the most. Dr. Jackson analyzed two giains of 
corn (theTuscaroiaand Sweet Corn) grown on the «owc car, and he found 
nearly double the amount of phosphates in the latter, showing that eveJj 
when mixed, so as to grow on the same plant, each variety retains its 
power of select ng its app/iMprinte quantity of inorganic salts. A crop 
of Sweet Corn will take twice as much of the phosphates from the soil 
as the other variety, but at the same time will gite more material to 
the animal for tlie formati(m of bone. On the same principle the 
stiffness of the joints and lameness of the feet coinmon in horses fed 
too fieely with corn may be explained, these affections arising from an 
unnatural giowth of bone procured from the corn. 

(B.J The proportion of Starch changes according" to the variety and 
climate. Southern Corn contains more than Northern. Tuscaroracou" 
tains the most of any variety examined. Rice Coin, and Pop Corn 
contain the least. 

(C.) The lelative pioportions of oil and gluten also vary in the same 
manner. Rice Corn contains the most oil ; Pop Corn, Canada Corn, 
and Brown Cora rank ne»t. Burdtu Corn has a very tine white oil. 



110 AGRlClTLf CRAL tfiXT-BOOKv 

Tuscarora Corn does not contain either oil or gluten.* There is a dif» 
ference also in the mode of distribution of the oily and glutinous ports 
of corn ; the Southern and Dei't varieties having the oil and gluten on 
the sides of the elongated seed, ■while the stareh projects quite through 
the grain to its summit, and by its contraction in drying, produces the pC' 
culiar pit or depression in this variety of grain. Popping Corn contains 
the oil in little six-sided cell'' in the horny portions of the grain, in the 
form of minute drops. When heated, the oil is decomposed into car* 
buretted hydrogen gas, and e%ery cell is ruptured> the grain being com'- 
pletely voluted. 

(Z>.) The meal of those vaiietics containing much oil is less liable to 
fermeAt and become sour. 

(E.) The colors depend upon that of the utsll and of the oil ; the 
latter, when yellow showing its color through a transpai^ent epidermis 
(or skin.) The color of the oil varies much in different varieties. Red 
and blue corn owe their hues to the colors of the epidermis. 

(F.) The oil appears to reside chiefly immediately under the hull, so 
that when animals do not digest the outer coating of the grain, as is the 
case when corn is fed unground to bogs, much of the oil is lost. 

(G.) The inorganic salts, and especially the phosphates appear to be 
confined to the chit and germ. {Jack^n.) 

{H.) The large eight-VoWed yellow corn contains lS.9 per cent, of 
nlbumen, casein, and gluten, while the Sioux contains 16.5 per cent, of 
the same. 

The eight'-rowed Squaw Corn contains COG per cent-, of starch, sugar> 
oil, and gum, while the eight'-rowed small white Flint contains T6.6 pef 
cent of the same. If the Squaw Corn is wol'th fifty cents a bushel for 
fattening, the Flint would be equally cheap at fifty-eight cents a busheh 
{Gould.) 



•There are apparently two sorts of eol-n known as the " Tuscarora" the one men- 
tioned above as devoid of oil-, if tlie analysis is correct, and oi* analyr.ed by Drv 
BahsbUry (Known also as " Turkey Wheat,") which contains 5.32 per cent, of oil, 
calculated without the water. What we ourselves have grown as " Tuscorora," was 
a peculiarly 'iry, starchy grain, Vvith a thin skin, apparently dcfieicrit in oil. We 
would here refer the reader to the admirable Essay on Corn by Dr. Salisbury, con- 
tauiing the most complete and accurate examination of this grain perhaps ever madr^ 
in the Transactions of (he New York Slate ■igricullural Society, vol. viii, 1818. It 
tjccupies 199 closely printed octavo pages ; and we would willingly have extracted 
taore from it had our limits permitted. As these volumes, however, are not difficult 
to meet, with, we prefer referring the reader to the Essaj' itself, as anj quottitiwne 
•must prove deficient without the context* 



AGttiCtJLWKAt *fiX*-fiOOK. Ill 

Protn tlicse facts it will be perceived how importitttt it is that 
the farmer should study the adaptation of variety to the pur-^ 
pose intended in consumption. If he wishes to give young an- 
imals large bones, let him feedtliem on Sweet Corn; but at the 
same time manure the soil with dissolved bones, or other phos- 
phate-bearing manures, He would endeavor in tain to ftitten 
animals with the Tuscarora, as it contains no oil, while it makes 
the best bread, and is peculiarly adapted for the manufticture of 
corn starch. Again, the hard northern gluten^befiring corns 
are better for working animals than the southern=^starch bearing 
Varieties, though the latter, independent of the oil, will make 
most fat, the former most tlesh. An accurate analysis of all 
Varieties gi-own in the United States would be of great pecuni" 
ary value to the country. 

2V7. The varieties of corn are generally distinguished by 
(a^) the number of rows of grain in the ear, fls eight, twelve, 
fourteen, and sixteen-rowed 5 or by (l^) the color, as White, yel" 
low, brown, &c., but none of the common divisions are eithei* 
accurate or scientific. It ■rt'ere useless to recite the names of 
the many varieties, the more especially as they are constantly 
changing by hybridizing. It may be noticed that northern 
corn will improve, if removed southwards, in size and product^ 
iveness, but southern corn taken to the north will either not 
tipen at all, or soon degenerate. 

The origin of Sii:eet Com is unknott'n.but it appears to have been 
lised by the Indians of New England before the arrival of tbe Pilffrimsj 
It appears like an unripe grain ■ and contains art unusually large pro' 
portion of the Phosphates, and a large quantity of sugar and gum with 
but little starch ; Ivhile the stalks, being small, take Up a less proper* 
tion of the sali ne matters of the soil. 

278. The qitallties desirable in a good variety differ accord' 
ing to the soil and climate. In the Central and Southern 
States the following may be laid down as peculiarities to be 
attained: (cu,) good growth of stalk and leaf; (b,) several ears 



112 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

on eacli stalk ; (c,) cob small, but long, and grains long and 
numerous ; (d,) husk tliick and liavd so as, to sbed water, and 
resist tlie attack's of birds ; (e,) ripening sufficiently early to es- 
cape early frosts. In the Northeastern States, corn with a short 
light stalk, but with suckers, or supernumerary stalks bearing 
ears, as in the Button, is preferred. 

279. The weight of a bushel of corn greatly varies. The 
legal weight in Michigan is 56 lbs. to the bushel. It is stated 
that corn on the cob loses 20 to 50 per cent, in measure by 
shrinkage in seven months, and 10 to 15 per cent, in w^eight. 
When sold on the cob by the bushel, 2 to l-j bushels of ears 
are equivalent to one bushel of shelled corn according to variety. 
In the Southern States it is frequently measured by the barrel 
of five bushels. 

280. The yield to the acre varies from 20 to 200 bushels of 
shelled com. 

The following premium crops of corn were grown in Kentucky in 
1850. There were nine competitors, and the surface in cultivation ten 
acres by each coinpetitor. 



J. Matson, 


189 bushels, 


I quart per acre, 


P.Peaii, 


- 189 


" 


S. H. Chew, 


137i.< " 


(( 


J. Hutchcraft, - 


- 115 


« 


A. Vanmetcr, 


1081;; " 


K 


E. Hedges, - 


" 107 


<( 


E. W. Hockaday, - 


100 


<t 


Dr. B. \V. Dudley, 


- 100 


" 


H. Varnon, * 


98 


•' 



or, 11,440 bushels 10 quarts shelled corn oft 90 acres, perhaps the largest 
quantity ever raised from the same area. {D. Lee.) But it shows what 
corn can produce under good cultivation and favorable circumstances. 

281. I. Inorganic analysis of white Flint corn, sown on a 
Bandy loam and manured in part with coal ashes, (Salisbury,) 
Kew York : 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



113 





KeriK-iH. 


Leiives. 


Cob 


Silica. 


9.50 


53.550 


13.600 


Alkaline Pho'pbatcs, - ? 
E;irtliy Phosphates, - - J 


35.500 ( 






19.250 


23.920 


Lime, - - 


0.160 


6.092 


0.300 


Magrnesia, ... 


2.410 


1250 


0.900 


Potash, 


23920 


12.762 


35.802 


Soda, 


22 590 


8.512 


5.914 


Chlorine. 


0.405 


9.762 


0.132 


Sulphuric acul. 


4 385 


4.185 


0.345 


Organic matter, 


0.367 




2.314 


Carbonic acid, - - 






6.134 



II. Southern corn (Shepherd,) 100 parts gave 0.95 parts ash, 
composed : 



Silica, 

Potash, with trace of Soda, 

Phosphate of lime, 

Pho.sphate of magnesia, 

Phosphate of potash, 

Carbonate of lime, - 

Carbonate of magnesia, 

Sulphate of li.ne and magnesia, 

Silira, (mechaDically present,) 

Alumina, 

Loss, - - . 



III. Com, (United States.) (Fromberg.) 

Potash, - . - , 

Soda, . . . . - 

Magnesia, - - - - 

Lime, . - . . - 

Phosphoric acid, . - - 

Sulphuric acid, - . - - 
Silica, .... 

Peroxide of iron, . . . . 



38.45 

19.51 

17.17 

18.83 

2.24 

2 50 

2.16 

0.79 

1.70 

trace 

1.65 

100.00 

26,63 
7.54 

15.44 
1.59 

39.65 
5.54 
2.09 
0.60 

99.08 



It will be perceived from these analyses that Indian com va- 
8 



lU 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



ries very gTeatly in its inorganic constituents. But we are led 
to believe that it varies still more in Europe, if Liebig (Agricvl. 
Chem.,) is correct in stating : " There are certain plants which 
contain either no potash or mere traces of it. Such is Indian 
Corn. (Zea mays.) For plants such as these the potash in 
the soil is of no use, and farmers are well aware that they can 
be cultivated without rotation on the same soil." 

The water in dry corn varies from 10 to 15 per cent.; but as 
high as 37 per cent, when first ripened. 

2S2. Organic analysis of various varieties of corn grown in 
Kew York. (Salisbury.) Golden Sioux corn, 1 2, — 14-rowed, 
an improved variety of Buell's Dutton com (A,) Ohio Dent 
com (B,) small 8-rowed corn (C,) White Flint, giwvn on clay 
loam, and manured with coal ashes, horse dung, and unleached 
wood ashes (D,) large 8-rowed yellow corn (E.) 





A. 


B. C. 


D. 

40.34 


E. 


Starch , 


36.06 


41.85 30.290 


49.22 


Gluten, - - - 


6.00 


4.62 5.600 


7.69 


5.40 


Oil, - 


3.44 


3.88 3.900 


4.68 


3.71 


Albumen,- 


4.42 


2.64 6.000 


3.40 


3.32 


Ciisein, 


1.92 


1.32 


2.200 


0.50 


0.75 


Dextrine, - - - 


1.30 


5.40 


4.615 


2.90 


1.89 


Fibre, 


18.50 21.36 


26.800 


18.01 


11.96 


Sue,ar and extractive matter, 


7.25 10.00 


5.200 


8.30 


9.55 


Water. - 


15.02! 10.00|13.400 


14.00 


14.00 



When the dough of Indian corn is washed with water, a 
glutinous residue is left different from the gluten of wheat, and 
characterized by its solubility in alcohol, and therefore altered to 
vegetable gelatin. 

The organic composition of corn in Europe differs from the 
above according to the following analyses. {^Knapp and 
Fayen.) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



115 





ladian Meal 

from 
Hohenheim. 


Indian Meal 

from Polenta 

Vienna. 


Fayex. 
Grain of Corn. 


Gluten, - - > 

Albumen, - - j 

Starch, 

Sugar, gum, - ^ 

Fatty matter, - - V 

Husk, - - ) 

Ash, - 


14.66 
66.34 

18.18 


13.65 j 
77.74 

7.16 j 


12.3 

71.2 
0.4 
9.0 
5.9 
1.2 



The amount of inorganic matter taken from an acre of the 
soil by the small white Flint com is : ( Gould.) 

Silicic acid, - - 

Phosphates of iron, lime, and magnesia, - 

Potash, .... 



Soda, 
Lime, 

Magnesia, - 
Chlorine, 
Sulphuric acid, 



Of organic matter there is taken from one acre ; 

Sugar and extract, .... 

Starch, (in kernel only,) - . - , 

Rosin, (in cob only,) - - 

Fibre, . . , . , 

Albumen, - - - . . 

Casein, - « . - . 

Zein, (in kernel only,) ... 

Dextrine and gum, . - . -^ 

Oil, (in kernel only,) - - . 

Chlorophyl and wax, . - . . 

Glutinous matter, - ... 



210.14 lbs. 

94.58 " 

64.71 " 

63.00 " 

15.69 " 

9.69 " 

19.62 « 

30.34 " 

881.85 lbs. 



2,892 lbs. 

5,139 " 
15 « 
11,526 " 
817 " 
396 " 
143 •' 
1027" 
312 " 
171%" 
420 « 



22,546 lbs. 

Of this, 8,008 lbs. are taken off by the kernels, leaving 

14,538 lbs. for tbe rest of the plant. Of the inorganic matter 

99 lbs. are contained in the kernels, leaving 782 lbs. for the stalks, 

leaves, <fec. 



116 



AGRICULTtTRAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Amount of the several proximate organic bodies in a ton of 
each of the following parts when ripe. (Salisbury.) 





Leaves. 


Sheaths 


stalks. 


Cob. 


Kernels. 




11.9. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Ib.s. 


lbs. 


Sugar and extract, - 


336.000 


180.000 


186.660 


94.000 


266.40 


Starch, 








trace. 


1186.00 


Resin, . - - 








12.500 




Fibre, 


1086 000 


1338.000 


1402 660 


883.76(1 


17 80 


Matrer by potash, - 


139 340 


116.64(1 


71.340 


314.240 


11980 


Albumen, - 


160.800 


70.060 


12.000 


10.500 


85.80 


Casein, - 


34.660 


8.040 


72.000 


2.000 


1.60 


Zein, - 










33.60 


D.'Xtrine and gum, - 


116.00 


57.600 


165.340 


16.000 


65.20 


Oil, - 










72.00 


Resin, chloropbyl ) 

and wax, - ^ 

Glutinous matter, - 












82.660 


J?;3S! B4.000 


51.240 




Water, 


55.340 


167 400 71.400 


626 400 


169.900 



Percentage of dry matter in the following several parts of 
Small White Fhnt Corn, when ripe. (Salisbury.) 



Lieaves, 


40.108 


Ear stalks. 


11.128 


Sbeatbs, • 


29.342 


Kernels, - 


- 62.540 


Stalli, 


13.6.35 


1 Cob, - 


45.652 


Tassel, . . - 


58.722 


Silks, 


- 18.825 


Sheaths of husks. 


30.643 







The following table shows about the amount of the several proximate 
or«'anic bodies thrown nway in rejecting the cob, calculated from the 
analysis of the Small White Flint variety, 1000 lbs. contain not far 
from 200 lbs. of cob, and 800 lbs. of grain. These contain the following 
proportions, expressed in pounds and decimals of a pound . {Salisbury.) 



Sugar and extract, 

Starch, 

Fibre, - 

on, - 

Zein, - - - 

Matter eeperated by pot- 
ash from fibre, 
Albumen, 

Casein, - - - 

Dextrine or gum, - 
Eesin, - - 

Glutinous matter, - 



200 lbs. Cobs. 


800 lbs. grain. 


1000 lbs. ear*. 


13.582 


115.320 


128.902 


0.003 


487.384 


487.387 


127.687 


7.712 


135.399 




39.824 


39.824 




31.856 


21.856 


45.404 


61.856 


97.360 


1.618 


37.136 


38.654 


0.288 


00.688 


0.976 


2.310 


28.224 


30.534 


1.806 




1.806 


7.402 




7.402 



AGRICULTimAL TEXT-BOOK. 11*1 

In tte above table the inorganic matter is not seperfttely considered, 
it being distributed among tbe several organic bodies. By rejecting th« 
cobs of 1000 lbs. of dry ears about 200 lbs. of organic mattei is lost 
•which consist of 13>4 lbs. of sugar and extract, 227>^ lbs. of fibre, 45)^ 
lbs. of water solublft in potash, 1}^ lbs. of albumen, i^ lb. of casein, 
2.31 lbs. of gutn or dextrine, 1.8 lbs. of rcsin, and 7.4 lbs. of glutinous 
matter. Hence the cob, although not rich in nutritive matter, can by 
no means be said to be destitute of these proximate principles whicb 
go to support respiration and sustain animal heat, and those which are 
capable of being transformed into nerve, muscle, «tc., and the phos- 
phates which contribute so largely to the formation of bone. 

Inorganic composition of the ash of the ripe cob. (Salisbury.) 

Carbonic acid, ... - 9.455 

Silicic acid, ..... 10.320 

Sulphuric acid, - - - • - 1.336 
Phosphoric acid, • - » » -13105 

Lime, - ' - - - - 3 833 

Magnesia, ..... 6.745 

Potash, ..... 34.400 

Soda, ...... 11.495 

Chloride of sodium, .... 1,980 

Organic acids, ... - - 6.430 

Phosphate of peroxide of iron, « . - .445 

99.544 

Of all the twenty -seven varieties of corn examined by Dr. Salisbury, 
the Rhode Island Sweet is the richest in albumen, oil, and dextrine, and= 
the moat deficient in starch. As a general rule, those varieties with 
full corneous kernels are richer in the nitrogen ized bodies and oil, and 
less rich in starch than the indented kinds; and of the corneous sorts 
with distended grains, the yellow seems to be richer than the white in 
oil, and those bodies which contain nitrogen, and less rich in starch. 

According to Freseniiis, the oil of corn consists of : 

Carbon, ..... 79.68 

Hydrogen, • • • • - 11.53 

Oxygen, . - - - - - 8.79 

283, Inorganic analysis of the leaves of corn at different 
stages. (Salisbury.) 



118 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 





July 19. 


Aug. 2. Aug. 23. 


Aug. 30. 


Oct. 18. 


Carbonic acid, 


6,40 


2.850 0.65 


3.50 


4.050 


Silica, - _ - 


13.50 


19.850 


34.90 


36.27 


58.650 


Sulphu]-ic acid. 


2.16 


1.995 


4.92 


5.84 


4.881 


Phosphates, 


21.60 


16.250 


17.00 


13.50 


6.850 


Lime, 


0.69 


4.035 


2.00 


3.38 


4.510 


Magnesia, 


0.37 


2.980 


1.59 


2.30 


0.865 


Potash, 


r 9.98 


11.675 


10.85 


9.15 


7.333 


Soda, 


34.39i29.590 


21.23 22.131 8.520 


Chlorine, 


4.55 6.020 


3.06 1.63| 2.664 


Organic acids. 


5.50 


2.400 


3.38 


2.05 


2.200 



98.14|97.760| 99.58| 99.75|99.623 



Proximate organic analysis of the leaves at different stages of 
growth, calculated with the -water. (Salisbury.) 



Sugar and extract soluble in alcohol, - 
Do do insoluble in alcohol, 

Fibre -with a little chloropbyl. 
Fibre, . . . . 

Matter seperated from fibre by a weak 

solution of caustic potash. 
Albumen, - - - . 

Casein, . - - . 

Dextrine or gum, . - . 

Oil and rosin, 

Chloropbyl and wax, - - - 

Water, - . . . 




284. Dr. Jackson found 100 grains of the CMt yield 6.4 
grains of ashes (§2*79. ii) which consisted of: 

Phosphate of lime, • - - • 2.4 

Phosphate of magnesia, ... - 0.8 

Phosphoric acid, a little potash, silica, and oxide of iron, • 3.2 

6.4 

In composition, the Chit differs materially from the rest of the kernel 
in containing a very large per centage of oil and albumen, and a small 
percentage of starch. In the analyses of the Chit, the oil amounts to 
from 26 to 30 percent., and the albumen from 17 to 20 per cent, of the 
dry matter, while the starch langes from about 10 to 12)^ per cent. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



119 



285. The feeding qualities of corn are universally known; 
and throughout the greater portion of the United States, it is 
used as bread for man, and depended on for fattening hogs and 
beef. There do not appear, however, to have been many accu- 
rate experiments made to ascertain how many pounds of corn 
are requisite to make a pound of meat. There are many diffi- 
culties in the way of arriving at accurate results in these re- 
spects. Different breeds, and even individuals of the same 
breed possess different fattening qualities; we have seen that 
the variety of the corn used must make much difference ; clean- 
liness, and mode of feeding make more still ; while corn ground 
and cooked is found to possess much more nutritive power, 
bushel for bushel, than when fed in its natural state. The fol- 
lowing table, compiled from some experiments by Mr. H. L. 
Ellsworth, may be considered as an approximation towards the 
relative value of raw unground, and cooked ground corn, — 
though owing to peculiar circumstances the hogs fed on mush 
did not make as good progress as they ought to have done : 



tj! Weight 
P when put up 


Fed daily. 


Weight at 

end of 15 

days. 


Gain. 


Fed in all in 
15 days. 


Value of corn 
when jiork is 
3 cents per lb. 


1 i:Jllbsloz / 

2 150 lbs 4 oz J 

3 157 lbs 4 oz J 

4 ;201bs4ozj 


A^/i lbs. meal 

cooked, each. 

7 lbs raw 

corn, each. 

1 4 lbs raw 
corn, each. 
2,*^ lbs meal 
cooked. each 


5U9ibsl3oz 
)1651bsl3oz 
51791bsl3oz 
il46Ibs 


la !bs 9 oz. 
15 lbs 9 oz. 
22 lbs 9 oz. 
25 lbs 12 oz 


(lOolbsmeil 
^2101bscorn 


56 cts pr bush 
38Ji c pr bush 






End of .0 
days. 


29 lbs 3 oz. 
•23 lbs 3 oz. 

20 lbs 


In 20 days. 




1 
2 
3 
4 


l491bsI3oz) 
1651bsl3ozi 
Sick. ) 
146 I 


179 lbs 
189 lbs 

1661hs 


|2801bsc'rn 
5 70n>s meal 


SIcts prbush 
4'' ets pr bush 



Thence it is deduced that raw food is to cooked food as 68 
to 103, making the gain by cooking 55 per cent, over uncooked 
food ; or 3 bushels of meal cooked is equal to 4^ bushels of dry 
hard com. Or looking at this table in another light ; the farmer 
selling his corn by turning it into pork, would receive 55 cents 
a bushel if it was fed cooked, while he would only receive 38|- 
cents per bushel if fed raw. It is generally estimated that if 



120 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

eorn is cut up and fed to hogs in the field, 15 bushels will fat- 
ten each one; that is, add 100 lbs. weight of flesh. If hogs 
at gross weight are worth |3,00 per cwt., this makes corn worth 
20 cents per bushel. If hogs are confined in pens, raw dry- 
corn is worth 30 cents, and cooked meal 50 cents per bushel ; 
so that the gain by grinding and cooking, over feeding in the 
field is 150 per cent. The manure, in the calculation of a skil- 
full farmer, should cover the incidental expenses of fire, feed- 
ing, &c. It is to be observed, hoAvever, from the above experi- 
ment^ that hogs fed on mush did not increase in weight so 
rapidly as the others. Considering that many millions of bushels 
of corn are annually fed to animals in the United States, it is of 
great economical importance, worthy of the attention of the 
Federal and State Governments, that extensi\e and accurate 
experiments should be made as to the most economical mode 
of fattening stock. If we suppose — and we put the case in all 
respects lower than the truth is believed to be — 200,000,000 
of bushels of corn, bearing a market value of 25 cents per 
bushel, are annually fed to hogs, and by improved means of 
feeding a saving of 25 per cent could be made, it would leave 
60,000,000 bushels, worth twelve millions five hundred thousand 
doUai's to be applied to other purposes ; and which now are an- 
nually thrown away, without being of any possible value, either 
direct, or indirect, to man. 

Mr. Ellsworth, however, observes that " where land is cheap 
and easily tilled, and labor dear, as in the West, it may be best 
to make hogs their own harvesteis. My present impi-ession is, 
that [in Indiana] the most profitable way to feed corn, all things 
considered, is to cut the corn, as soon as it begins to turn hard; 
then hogs will eat corn, cob, and stalk; then too, the weather is 
mild, and swine will thrive much faster in September, October, 
and November, than in December, January, and February." 
This calculation is, of coui-se, based on peculiar circumstances 
confined to certain localities. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 121 

286. Corn meal, owing to deficiency in gluten, <fec., does not 
rise with yeast like wheat flour. The different varieties make 
different qualities of bread. The Southern and " Oregon" va- 
rieties are preferred for this purpose, as containing more starch. 
Yellow corn has more flavor, and absorbs more water than the 
white. In France it has been found that 1 50 lbs. of corn will 
make from 215 to 223 lbs. of good bread. Mr. Ellsworth 
found that 14 lbs. of good corn meal, thoroughly cooked, will 
make 90 lbs. of mush, so thick as not to run when taken out of 
the kettle; so that, in this form, the power of absorbing water 
is veiy great. The quality of bread likewise depends upon the 
mode in which the corn is ground. In the South, the mill 
stones are dressed so a.s to cut the meal into sharp particles, and 
not to crush it into powder as is done in wheat-flouring mills, — 
the corn being fed to the stones by handfuls at a time. Meal is 
often mixed with rye or wheat flour, and thus made into loaves. 

Dr. Clos lias lately given, in the Journal iV Agriculture pratique, ihe 
result of certain experiments made to ascertain ibe coniparntive econo- 
mical value of Yellow and White coin, grown in the Soulb of France. 
He found that Yellow corn meal when cooked absorbed water, and made 
mush as follows : 

Wci;;l)t of Meal iir • u» r vt u Differi'iic'e, or weight 

cmplnjed. Weight of Mush. of water absorbed. 



Lilo;<niinmc. 






Kilogramme. 






Kilogramme. 


3.794 


. 


. 


11.932 


. 


. 


8.138 


34S8 


. 


. 


11 136 


. 


. 


7 648 


3.549 


. 


- 


12 054 


. 


. 


8.505 



Total, 10 831 - - 35 122 - - 24.291 
White C'lrn raeal, cooked in the same manner gave: 

3.977 . - 11.075 - - 7.098 

3.977 - - 11.442 - • 7.465 

4.161 - - 11687 - - 7.526 



Total, 12.115 - - 34 204 - - 22 089 

The Yellow corn gives a larger quantity of mnsh in proportion to the 
nu-al u.';ed, and each kilogramme of meal absorbs over two kilcgiarnmes 
of water, while the While corn meal absorbs less than two kilogrammes, 



122 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

or the musli of the Yellow is in proportion of 39.285 to 34.204 of the 
White from the same weights of meal. The Yellow meal, on sifting, 
ga?e less bran and more useful meal than the White by one-twentieth. 
It was further shown (a,) that the Yellow corn is drier and harder ; (b,) 
resists moisture and is kept more easily ;and (c,) weighs more per bush- 
el than the White. The same experiments repeated in America couhl 
not fail to be useful. {A kilogramme, is 2 1-5 lbs. avoiidupois.) Mr. 
Gould has stated that 10 lbs. 13 oz. of Long Island rorn grew on a given 
space, while 15 lbs. 2 oz. of Lirge 12-rowed red corn grew on the same 
space of a precisely similar soil. The large White Flint yields 2.4 tons 
of grain to the acre on the same soil where the large Yellow Sioux 
yields 3.5 tons per acre. 

287. The stalks, leaves, and husks, have a great nutritive vahie 
for fodder. When well saved, being cut before they are fully 
ripe, they are j^robably very nearly equal in this respect to com- 
mon hay. They contain much sugar ; and are believed to be 
more valuable than hay when fed to milk cows ; producing a 
larger quantitj'^ of milk ; but no accurate experiments seem to 
have been made. In 1848, the Commissioner of Patents pro- 
cured from seventeen States, estimates of the supposed value of 
corn fodder, and it varies from $1 to $5 per ton; exclusive of 
manure made from it. If stalks are given to cattle in their 
natural state, a large portion, and that the heaviest, is wasted ; 
but if cut and mixed with a little meal, nearly the whole will 
be eaten. The relative value, therefore, will of course depend 
on the mode of feeding. Again, it must be taken into consid- 
eration whether the husks are left on the stalks or not; the 
practice varying in different localities. The size of stalks also 
makes a difference, the small northern corn containing more 
consumable fodder than the large southern ; and some varieties 
are believed to be much richer in sugar, and probably albumen 
than others. 

288. The cob, also, when divested of grain, contains a nota- 
ble amount of nutriment. Most animals will eat it when soft, 
but refuse it when hard. Mr. Ellsworth had cobs crushed and 
ground, and kept his store hogs and other stock through the 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 123 

winter upon the meal. The cob is often crushed and ground 
with the corn when intended for fattening animals, and produ- 
ces a good effect mechanically as well as nutritiously. Oxen, 
however, ai-e supposed to suffer from the fibres collecting in and 
obstructing the intestines. 

289. Green com stalks afford a saccharine juice which can be 
crystallized into sugar. Many experiments were made in this 
direction a few years ago, but the cost was found too great to 
compete with cane sugar. The time, however, may come when 
this manufacture will prove profitable, as that of Beet sugar is 
at present in France. 

290. Com is frequently sown broadcast to be cut green for 
soiling, when the grain becomes of secondary importance. 

291. Corn may be made to grow, with manure and skilful 
cultivation, upon almost any kind of soil, but the land pecuharly 
adapted to it is that which contains a large per centage of veg- 
etable matter, is fine, friable, warm, deep, and sufficiently sup- 
plied with moisture by evaporation. Prairies, and diluvial de- 
posites along rivers, may be called the natural habitat of corn. 
It will grow where wheat prospere, but wheat will frequently 
not mature profitably in the best corn lands. 

The following is an analysis of a rich corn-bearing soil in Ohio, oc- 
casionally overflowed by the Scioto River. It has been cultivated fifty- 
one years ; and has borne forty-five crops of corn, and two or three of 
wheat, and been a few jears in grass or clover. With the most ordinary 
culture it yields 80 bushels of corn to the acre. (2>. A. Wells.) 

I. Constituents soluble in pure water : 

Total percentage S n''^"''^ °^ "T^' ^'kajine. chlorids, .6c.. - 0.032 

190 < Organic matter, crenic acid, - - . 0.010 

( Iron, lime and silica, .... 0.012 

II. Constituents soluble in dilute acid : 

f Iron, alumina, and manganese, - - 2.760 

I Organic matter, combined witli the above, - 0.8G0 

I Silica, ..... 0,560 

{ Lime, 0.390 

Magnesia, ..... 0.280 

Phosphoric acid, .... traces. 

^Potash and soda, .... 0.161 



Total acid ex 
tract 5.011 



124 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 

Organic matter rendered Boluble by ammonia, - - 3140 

" " " ... 1.030 

" " remaining with insoluble residue, - - 1.720 

Insoluble silicates, - ..... 83.010 

100 parts of the insoluble residue gave 59 parts silicious.and 41 parts 

clayey matter. 
Water, hygroscopic and combined, ... 3.500 

Eesinousand waxy matter, ..... .03G 

The most striking fact in cotinection with these soils ia the exceeding 

finene.ss of their particles. 

A deep rich mellow soil, in wbicli the roots can freely extend 
a great distance in depth and laterally; and where, owing to the 
fineness of the soil, they will not be injured by drought, nor hid- 
den from the heat of the sun, and from atmospheric influence, 
is what the corn grower should provide for this ci'op. A com- 
pact clay which excludes alike air, water, and rapid growth of 
roots, forbidding all chemical changes, is not the soil for corn. 
As it grows rapidly it requires a constant supply of food, and 
this can only be attained where there is water enough to act as a 
solvent to the solids. As will have been observed in the inor- 
ganic analyses, the per centage of ash in corn is comparatively 
small, organic matter and water forming the gi'eat mass of the 
tissue. 

292. A great variety of manures are applied to this crop ac- 
cording to the requirements of the soil. Organic manures, — 
barn-yard dung and such like — are those which will most gen- 
erally prove serviceable ; and next to these, decayed vegetable 
matter. In consequence, corn is found to succeed well on grass 
or clover sod. Of the inorganic manures, dissolved bones, un- 
leached wood ashes, salt, and plaster, promise to do good, if the 
Boil is deficient in these elements. 

293. When corn is planted on sod, (a,) spread manure on 
the grass; (h^) plow deep, laying the furrow flat; (c^) roll, and 
(d^) harrow with a long sharp toothed harrow, or a cultivator, 
till the surface is rendered friable two or three inches or more, 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 125 

deep ; both of these processes being lengthwise of the furrow ; 
(e,) spread compost, or well decayed dung, and harrow it in 
ajrain. If corn is to be planted on stubble, one plowing, and a 
thorough harrowing, with the same application of manure, is 
all that is requisite. 

294. Corn is planted, (a^) by hand with a hoe, or (h,) by a 
drill, either ('c,J in hills, or (d^) rows ; and these latter either 
(Cy) equal or (f^) alternate. If by hand, the lines are laid out 
by (g,) a light plow drawing a shallow furrow both ways across 
the field, so as to divide it into squares, at the proper distance, 
or (hy) by a corn marker^ a coarse implement made somewhat 
similar to the form of a hay rake, with the teeth or pins at the 
distance apart proper for the corn ; the whole being drawn by 
a hoi-se ; (i,) the drill will plant either in hills or rows. The 
usual distance apait for hills is three to five feet each way, ac- 
cording to the size of the corn; for rows three to four feet, and 
the plants nine to twelve inches apart in the row. 

The amount per acre of the crop depends much on the mode of plant- 
ing. In a favorable soil it rarely happens that each original stalk does 
not produce one ear; allowing these ears to produce in shelled corn one 
gill each, the amount produced |>er acre by different methods of plant* 
ing will be as follows. — four stalks being allowed to each hill when 
planted in that form : 

One acre in hills 4 feet apart, gives 2,722 hills or 10,885 stalks. 
" 3 " " " 4,840 " 19,.360 " 

" 3 ft. by 21^ ft. " 5,808 " 82,232 " 

" " in drills 3 ft. and 6 inches for plants, - 29,040 " 
" " in double drills thus : 

» » ♦ » • • 

« * • » » • » 

6 inches apart, the plants 9 inches in the rows, and 3 feet 9 inches from 
the centre of the drills would have 30,970 stalks. An acre planted 3 
rows in a drill thus : 



« 



126 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

rows 6 inches apart, and the plants 9 inches in the rows, with a distance 
of 3 feet from the centre of the drills would have 43,560 stalks, or 170 
bushels ; while the hills, 4 feet by 4 feet, could only give 42 bushels. A 
crop of 170 bushels to the acre was actually raised, some years since, in 
Madison county. New York, on the three row system. 

295. The proper deptti at wliich to plant the corn is about 
1 inch to 1^ inches. 

The following experiment was made by Burger, in Germany : 
Indian corn which was planted at the depth of 

inch, came up in 8^ days. 

inches, came up in 9^ days. 

inches, came up in 10 days, 

inches, came up in 11^ days. 

inches, came up in 12 days. 

inches, came up in 13 days, 

inches, came up in 13^ days. 

inches, came up in — days. 

inches, came up in — days. 

inches, came up in 17|- days. 

inches, came up in — days, 
Nos. 8, 9, and 11, were dug up after 22 days, when it was 
found that No. 8, had an inch more to grow to reach the sur- 
face. Nos. 8, and 11, had just sprouted but were short, and 3 
inches below the surface. No. 10, came up in 17^ days, but 
withered after 6 days growth. The more shallow the seed was 
covered by the earth, the more rapidly the sprout made its ap- 
pearance, and the stronger, afterwards, was the stalk. 

Corn will not germinate unless the temperature of the soil 
attains to 55 "^ Fahr., and at a temperature higher than 110 ° 
it equally refuses to vegetate. 

" Much of the damage which is supposed to arise from planting in 
the ' wrong time of the moon,' is really due to planting when the soil 
is at the wrong temperature, and if the time ever arrives when the aver- 
age crop of the country is equal to what our premium crops now are, it 



No. 1, 


1 


No. 2, 


H 


No. 3, 


2 


No. 4, 


2i 


No. 5, 


3 


No. 6, 


3i 


No. 7, 


4 


No. 8, 


4i 


No. 9, 


5 


No. 10, 


5i 


No. 11, 


6 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 127 

must be when every farmer owns a thermometer and knows how to use 
it." (J.S. Gould.) 

An experiment was made in Connecticut in 1844 to plant corn three 
inches deep. It came up and grew well until it was three or four iucbes 
high, and then stopijed for a fortnight, while the same corn planted at a 
lessdepth grew rapidly. On examinaiion it was found that a joint had 
been formed about an inch and half above the kernel, and that the roots 
had sprouted out from ihe joint leainng all beloiv to perish. While the 
process of changing roots was going on the plant ceased to grow above 
ground, but in about a fortnight recovered ils vigor; and it was about 
that length of time later in maturing the grain, than the seeds which were 
planted shallower. 

296. The folio wing table will show the quantity of seed, re- 
quired, on an average, to plant an acre in hills. 

Distances of the 
bills apart. 

3 feet by 2 feet, 

3 " by 3 
3| " by 3 " 
H " by3J « - 

4 " by 3 " 
4 " by3J " 
4 " by 4 " 

297. The culture of the corn after it is above ground varies 
much. While some put a small quantity of ashes and plaster 
in the hill at planting, others wait until the corn is a few inches 
high. It will only be necessary shortly to state the various pro- 
cesses which are then pursued ; (a,) hoe, plow both ways, throw- 
ing the earth into hills round the corn, hoe and ])low again ; (b,) 
hoe and plow, as above, but keep the earth level, and not raised, 
around the roots ; (c,) hoe, but avoid plowing or hilling, cutting 
up the weeds, and rendering the surface friable with the cultiva- 
tor. It is quite necessary that weeds should not be allowed to 
grow, and that the earth should be frequently stirred; but 
whether deep plowing, or the use of the hoe and cultivator 
alone are best is a disputed ]">oint ; and probably depends on the 
nature and richness of the soil. 



Quantity required 
4 grains to a bill. 

QUARTS. 

14.52 


Quantity required 
6 grains to a hilU 

QUARTS. 

18.15 


9.68 


12.10 


8.30 


10.37 


7.11 


8.89 


7.26 


9.08 


6.22 


7.78 


5.44 


6.80 



128 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

These directions only apply to the Northern and Atlantic States. In 
the rich Western Piairies and river bottoms, corn culture is a much more 
simple process. 

298. It is a custom with some to plant corn five to eight feet 
apart in rows, and in the fall to plow between them, and sow 
wheat. As a system of rotation, this mode appears to possess 
peculiar advantages. For particulars, see Mr. Bartletts letter in 
the Farmer's Companion and Horticultural Gazette, Novem- 
ber, 1853. Pumpkins are generally planted in each alternate 
hill or row. In Virginia, peas are sown between the rows after 
the last hoeing, to be afterwards eaten off by hogs. In a 
similar manner clover is sown in New Jersey. 

299. It is also customary to steep com before planting to (a,) 
prevent birds and insects from injuring it; (b,) to act as a ma- 
nure. For the first purpose soak the com a few hours in warm 
water, and then mix it with tar thrown into water sufficiently 
hot to melt it. Each grain will be thinly coated with tar, Diy 
with plaster or ashes. For the second, use a weak solution of 
saltpetre, or salammoniac, (Muriate of ammonia,) 1 lb. to 4^- 
bushels, or 1 oz. to a quart of grain — mixed in warm water, 
and poured over, to remain upon the corn for 18 houi-s before 
planting. The corn sprouts with a rich green color, and grows 
rapidly, but whether it finally increases the crop is still dispu- 
ted. 

300. To grow com broadcast for fodder, rich clean land is 
required. It is prepared with one plowing, is slightly haiTOwed, 
and the corn sown at the rate of 3 to 4 bushels to the acre. It 
is then harrowed in and rolled. It is sometimes planted in 
drills, and worked with the cultivator. 

301. The best time for harvesting, or cutting the com is 
when the grain is glazed, but not yet perfectly hard, and the 
stalks still partially green. 

302. Previous to this process, and at the time when the ears 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 12J) 

but not the grains were fully formed, it used to he the custom 
to top the corn, i. e., cut off the stalks and le.ives above the 
highest ears ; but this is now generally abandoned. Truer views 
of the physiology of vegetation have taught that the leaves are 
necessary for the elaboration of the sap which foruLS the grain ; 
and careful experiments proved that when the plant was thus 
deprived of part of its foliage, the grain was lighter and the 
ear not so well filled, although it might ripen a little earlier. 

303. In the Southern States, it is customary to pluck tho 
leaves of corn, dry them for fodder, and stack them, leaving the 
stalks standing in the field, to be afterwards eaten by stock, or 
plowed in. As this is generally done before the grain is formed, 
the same injurious results follow as in topping. 

The following experiment was tried in South Carolina in 1846. 
Twelve rows of corn, as nearly equal in appearance as could be found, 
were selected. Nos. 1, 4, 7, 10, (A,) were left with the leaves on, until 
they were generally dry as high as the ear, and, on some stalks to the 
top. They were then cut up at the roots; shocked on the field until the 
other grain was gathered in ; they were then hauled in and husked from 
the stalk. Nos. 2, 5, 8, 1 1, (B,) were left with the blades on until quite 
ripe. Nos. 3, 6, 9, 12, (C,) were stripped of their blades before ripen- 
ing, but as late as usual. The results were as follows : 

A, when sliellC'1, measured 4 pecks, 1 gallon, 2 quarts, 1 pint, weighed 70}i lbs. 
K, " " 4 " 1 " 2 " \li" " 71.'i lbs 

C, « " 4 " " " >2 " " ,55 lbs 

The fodder, taken from the last, weighed 18 lbs., which added to the 
weight of the corn is 73 lbs.— 1 1-2 lbs. more than the corn alone from 
which no leaves were taken. It thus appears that this process deprives 
the corn of nearly the weight of the fodder when cured, without reck- 
oning the lime also consumed in taking the leaves off. 

304. Corn is har%'ested by cutting close to tho ground, with 
a heavy knife manufactured for the purpose, or part of a scythe 
blade, fixed to a handled of some sort. Several hills are laid 
together, and bound with acorn stalk; with straw rope; or other 
cheap band. These bundles, to the number of 4 to 8, are then 
tied around the stalks of a hiU left standing for the purpose. 

9 



130 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

There are various modifications of this process, but all on the 
same principle. The corn thus stands, until the leaves, stalks, 
and ears are dry ; in the north, till after the first strong frost, 
the etfect of which is to expel the remaining water. 

Then the bundles are opened, and the ears of each stalk 
separated from the husk, thrown into baskets, and removed by 
wagon to the corn crib. The workman holds in his hand a 
short, sharp, piece of wood, generally attached by a string to 
the wrist, to facilitate the opening of the husk. The husks 
should remain attached to the stalk ; and not be torn off as is 
too often done. The stalks are then again tied up, and left in 
the field till it is convenient to haul them to the barn, or stack 
them. When stacked out of doors great care must be taken 
that the rain does not get in, otherwise rot will rapidly ensue. 

305. When sown broadcast, the stalks are usually cut while 
green, and fed to stock in stables. If retained till winter they 
may be cut, bound, and stacked as above. A little salt scattered 
among the stalks in stacking will be found useful to pre^'ent 
moulding, and cause the animals to eat them more perfectly. 

Id 1845 over 31 tons of green corn stalks were raised to the acre in 
Massachusetts. The product of two acres 32 rods, fed 20 cows, 1 heifer, 
2 bulls, and 5 spring calves for 7 weeks and 5 days ; the dried produce 
off the same acre being estimati.d as equal to 15 tons of the best " Eng- 
ligh" hay. This production, however, is much greater than what is 
generally obtained. Ten bushels of "white flat Maryland corn" were 
sown on the 2 32-160 acres. Corn is sometimes sown broadcast for the 
purpose of plowing it in as a manure for wheat. 

306. Corn is seperated from the cob by (a,) thrashing with 
a flail ; (b,) treading with horees ; (c,) a machine called a corn- 
skeller, of which there are several sorts, some moved by hand, 
others by horse power. If required to be very clean the corn 
is then passed through a fanning mill. 

The following is a rule for finding the quantity of corn, shelled or in 
ear, in a house of any dimensions. Having previously levelled the corn 
in the house, so that it will be of equal depth throughout, ascertain the 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 131 

k?HT;th, breadtb, and depth of the bulk; multiply tbese dimensions to- 
gether; and their product by 4 ; then nut off one figure from the right 
band of this la&t j'roduct. This gives the bushels, and decimal of a 
bushel of slttlled com. If corn in the car, substitute 8 for 4, and cut olT 
one figure as before. 

Example : — 

1 .2 feet long. 
1 1 feel broad. 

1.3:2 
6 feet deep. 



792 
4 multiple for shelled corn. 



316.3 bushels in bouse. 

When 8 is use I as :i multiple to find the quantity of corn in 
the ear, it is on the ground of 2 bushels of such making 1 of 
shelled ^rain. 

There are other rules given for the same purpose which do not aKree with this, 
and it appears that tiie accuracy of this mode of measuring requires further testing, 

307. It is very impoilant that the best ears should be saved 
for seed ; as corn rapidly degenerates or improves according to 
the seed planted. Careful farmers select the best ears while 
husking ; leave part of the husk attached to them ; plait them 
together; and hang them up in a dry room. Corn not per- 
fectly ripened or dried, heats when thrown together in large 
quantities, and the germinative power is lost. Two years ago, 
owing to early frosts, the corn in Michigan was imperfectly 
dried ; and, in the spring, corn taken from the crib very gener- 
ally failed to grow ; while, presen'ed in the house, as above re- 
commended, it is said no failures occurred. The loss of labor 
and time, and of the crop in consequence, was cstimate<l at many 
thousand dollars in this one State alone. It is found advisable 
to change the seed every few years, procuring the new from a 
location further north, and from a difterent soil. 

308. In the southern, and middle western States, it is customary to 
t«rn hogs and cattle into the field of standing <;orn, but this is a very 



132 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

wasteful proceeding, unless labor is very costly. In south OLio, the 
corn is cut and tied in bundles, ard daily hanled to a small field, ■where 
stalks, grain, leaves, <fec,, are thrown on the ground for the fattening 
cattle to eat. The next day, these are removed to a second field, and 
their place is taken by a drove of hogs, which pick up what the cattle 
have wasted or refused. Thus, the two are fed alternately iu different 
fielda; and the swine fattened at comparatively little cost. 

309. If the cobs are not ground for feed, they should be 
mixed with animal manures in a state of fermentation, when 
they will gradually decay. They contain many valuable ele- 
ments of manure. They are occasionally used for smoking 
hams, and some other minor domestic purposes. 

810. There are no weeds peculiar to this crop. Indeed a 
skilful farmer will not allow a solitary weed to grow among his- 
corn ; and tlience it is an excellent cro^) for cleaning foul land. 

311. Corn is subject to the growth of a very peculiar and 
destructive fungus or Brand. 

Maize Brand {Uredo maydis. De Candolle,) attacks all the paren- 
chymatous organs of the corn plant, and more or less completely de- 
stroys fchein. The stalk, however, the female, and the male blossoms, 
are the parts which it most especially affects. Its development is a 
peculiar one, as it forces out great masses of cellular tissue, formed 
from the tissue of the mother plant, and similar in formation to the hit- 
ler. Some parts of the organs affected by the brand swell and become 
white. This species always impairs some blossoms, as soon as it is 
seated in tlie ear, wliile the other blossoms standing near bear good ripe 
kernels. The brand bladders can be very easily removed from tbe liv- 
ing plants by cuttmg thera out, only this must be done as soon as pos- 
sible, in order that in cutting them out the bladders may not scatter 
iLeir powder, and thus a future crop of brand not be prevented. For 
seed only, kernels should be .selected from plants which have remained 
•wholly free from the brand. This fungus is, by the structure of i<a 
spores, different from all others, and only related to the wheat brand. 
Corn in rich, damp loam appears more subject to this disease than in any 
other situation, and draining would probably ])rove an effectual cure. 
{See Trans, of N. Y. Agricul. S<)cij., vol. viii.,p. 842.) 

In the Patent Office Report for 1847, a description of a disease whisfe 



AORICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 133 

appeared in Maryland is given, and which we suspect to be another 
species of brand. 

" The cap of the injured ear is idiscolored, and when opened a few 
grains near the apex of the ear, and one side of it, mark the commence- 
ment of the disease in their sickly and shrivelled appearance ; this in- 
creases in space and intensity until the whole ear exhibits a deadly and 
gangreneous mass of black, rotten grains, while the whole plant on 
which it grows is erect, and of the most healthy and vigorous appear- 
ance.'' It did much injury to the crop. 

312. The insects most injurious to the corn are: 

( A.) Cut-wor/ns. These are thick, greasy-looking caterpillnrs, from on® 
to two inches in length, of a dark ashen grey color, with a brown head, 
a pale stripe along the back, and several minute black dots on each 
ring. They are the grub of a species of moth, belor^ging to a group 
called by Dr. Harris Agroiidians ; and there aie many species in tho 
United States, each species probably confining itself to a particular 
family of plants, as one to the cabbage, another to grasses and grains. 
The moths fly by night, appearing in July and August. They lay their 
eggs either in the eiound, o:- on the roocs of plants in the autumn, and 
these are hatched in the spring, the Cut-worm being produced. These 
feed on plants, concealing themselves in holes in the ground during day, 
and appearing only at night. During the summer they become chrysa- 
lids; remain in that state about four weeks; and the moth again ap- 
pears in the fall. The corn Cut- worm, is probably tl>e Agrostis messo- 
ria of Harris. They feed only on the sprouts and young stalks and do 
not eat the seeds of plants. 

(B.) Wire-worm, or lulus, a hard, worm-like form, with the skin 
eeperated into compartments or rings. It is not a true Insect as it un- 
dergoes no transformation ; and belongs to the class Myriapodia, a 
name derived from the great number of feet with which most of the an- 
imals included in it arc furnished. There are .several species. 

(C.) Wire-worm. In some localities, especially in new lands, and 
on plowing up old grass fields, another insect known by this name 
proves very injurious to young corn. They are long, .slender, worm-like 
grubs nearly cylindrical, with a hard and smoth skin, of a buff or brown- 
ish yellow color, the head and tail only being a little daiker; each of 
the first three rings are provided with a pair of short legs ; under- 
neath the last ring is a short retractile wart, or prop leg. These are tho 
grub of a species of Beetle, the Elaiers or Spring beetles, well known 
in this shape by the faculty they possess of throwing themselves up- 



134 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

■wards ■with a jerk, when laid on their backs. There are many speciea, 
some of -which appear to be confinert to rotten •wood. It is believed 
that they leinain in their feedina; or lai va state not less than five year?, 
before changing into beetles. The grubs injure corn both by eating the 
grain when first sown, and also by cutting off the young plant just below 
the ground, as the Cut-worm eats aioce the surface. 

(Z).) Spindle-worm. This is the caterpillar of a moth {Gortyna Zi os,) 
and is well known as destroying the apindh of corn. Its ravages, how- 
ever, generally begin 'while the cornsta'k is young, and before the siiin- 
dle rises much above the tuft of lca\es in which it is embosomed. The 
mischief is discovered by the withering of the leaves, and when these 
are (aken hold of, they may oflen be drawn out with the included spin- 
dle. On examining the corn, a small hole m.ay be seen in the side of 
the leafy stalk, near the ground, penetrating into the soft centre of the 
stalk, which when cut open ■will be found to be perforated, both upwards 
and downwards, by a slender ■worm-like caterpillar, whose excremen- 
tious castings surround the orifice of the hole. The grub grows to over 
an inch in leni^th, and to the thickness of a goose quill. The chrysalis 
is lodged in the burrow formed by it ; it is of a shining mahogany 
brown. 

{E.) The grub of the May-beetles, (Dor-bug, Cock-chafer, Anomala,) 
injures corn by eating the roots. It is a white, tljick, smooth skinned 
semipellucid-worm, with a brownish head, and whfn fully grown nearly 
half an inch in diameter. It is frequently thrown out of the ground in 
digging or plowing. When in a state of rest, it usually curls itself up 
in the shape of a crescent. It is supposed that it occupies from three to 
five years in the grub state, before changing. 

{F.) The Granary Weevil. (Fly Weevil — Grain moth — Angoumuis 
moth,) Butalis cerealeVa,) which is so destructive to slored wheat, is 
also -njurious to corn in some localities, when it is kept uiiprotected 
more than six or eight months. (See ^202.) 

(G.) The true Grain Weevil. (CurcuUo granarius,) also attacks 
stored corn. (See $ .) 

(H.) The Grain moth (Tinea granclla,) also feeds on corn under sim- 
ilar circumstances. 

(/.) Corn Weevil (Silvanus Surinamensis,) is very commonly found 
among stored corn, as well as in other grains, and in sugar. It also in- 
fests mills. It is said that Sas"^afras Root, mixed with the grain, drives 
them away. (For a very fall description and a plate of this, and Calan- 
dra granaria, see K. Y. Trans, of Agricul. Society, vol. viii., p. 65G.) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 135 

313. A great variety of preventives have been tried, but 
only a few appear to be worthy of use. Salt, perhays, is the 
most generally successful against such grubs as live in the 
ground : Two to four bushels per acre of fine salt being sown 
broadcast, and slightly harrowed in, a few days before planting. 
If the corn is to be planted on sod, fall plowing — late in the 
season — will aifect some good ; also steeping the grain in saline 
and animouical liquors ; and tarring. It has been recommended, 
and practised with success, to hang the seed corn in the smoke 
house, and smoke it with the hams : the pyroligneous acid ap- 
pears to be offensive to insects and birds, while it does no injury 
to the grain. For insects injuring the ripe corn when stored, 
abundance of air, and thorough ventilation are the best preven- 
tives. A barrel, impregnated with tar, it is said will drive 
away the True Grain Weevil, ( C. graiiarius,) (g,) if it is 
placed in the granary. It is thus employed in France. 
The farmer will find much profit in cherishing birds; even 
the red-winged Black Bird, (Agelaius phceniceceus,) and Crovf 
Black Birds, ( Qidscalus versicolor and ferriigbieus,) — on his 
farm ; for though they destroy some grain, it is but a choice of 
two evils; it being always found that where birds are driven 
away the loss by insects becomes extreme. A single pair of 
Crow Black birds will, in one season, destroy thousands of in- 
jurious grubs. 

The whole suhject of insocts injurious to vegetation in America, still 
rcqiiiies much study and persevering observation ; and notwithstanding 
Dr. Harris' labors, tlierc is yet much of practical importance to learn 
regarding it. We believe that the day will corae when means will be 
discovered of preventing these ravages ; but before this can take place, 
not only must the liabits of the insects themselves, but also the peculiar- 
ities of (he plants and soil be much better understood tlian at present. 
Many facts would lead us to believe, tliat an impovei'ishmetit of the soil 
is necessary before insects can become seriously injurious, as it is cer- 
tainly connected with diseases of vegetation. 

314. Many of the European physiologists, have for a length of time 



136 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

been endovorinsr to decide the question whethc-r grains will germinate 
before they are fully ripe ? Tbe last writer on the sulject, M. Duchar- 
tie. Professor of Botany in the Agronomic Institutit)n of Versailles, has 
made many very complete experimenis, with satisfactory results. We 
are only able to give here a summary of the truths he arrived at. 

1. The grains of the cereals are able to germinate, if harvested at least 
twenty to twenty-five days before maturity, or complete ripeness, al- 
though the germ is yet very imperfect. 

2. Such seeds requite a longer time to sprout than those quite ripe, if 
sown immediately without drying. 

3. The same proportionate number of seeds will grow in both cases, 
■with the exception, perhaps, of barley. 

4. Seeds imperfectly ripened germinate much more surely if ihey are 
well dried before sowing. In this case they sprout as «oon as perfectly 
ripe seeds. It would appear thnt seeds harvested in an unripe slate are 
able to mature themselves if kept for some time,— the embiyo being 
nourished and developed at the expense of the moisture and albumen. 

5. In practice, there need be no fear as regards sowing seeds of the 
cereals cut a long time before maturity, but the threshing should be de- 
ferred as long as possible. 

6. Where the crop is large and laborers scprce, the harvest may be 
commenced much earlier than is usual, without any fear of injuring the 
grain. 

7. The plants grown from seeds gathered twenty-five days before 
ripening, and allowed to dry for seven weeks, so far from being weak 
and inferior, were remarkable for their vigor, and on the whole no dif- 
ference in this respect could be perceived in favor of well ripened gnin. 
It would be well to make a series of similar experiments in America, as 
practically, it is a very important subject. 



'M- 



CHAPTER XI. 



RICE.— BUCKWHEAT.— MILLET.— CANARY 
GRASS. 

315. Rice has been known and cultivated from the earliest 
periods, and furnishes food to a large portion of the human 
family. Its native country is unknown. 

316. There are two varieties, (a J Common Rice; (Oryza 
saliva) and (b,) Cochin China, Dry, Upland, or Mountain Rice ; 
with several subvarietics, as Long Grain and Small Grain, &c. 

317. The first (a,) is cultivated in marshes; and, for a great 
part of its growth, is partially under water. It requires a wann 
climate. On the Eastern continent it matures as high as the 
45th parallel of north lat. and as far south as the 38th. On the 
Atlantic side of the Western continent, as far north and south 
as 38 ° of lat. On the western coast as fixr north as 40 "^ or 
more. It is cultivated in India, China, the Indian Archipelago, 
Eastern Africa, South of Europe, southern portion of the United 
States, and in parts of South America. It was introduced into 
Virginia in 1647, and into Louisiana in 1718. According to 
Boussingault it requires a minimum temperature of 75 '-' F. 

318. The second variety (6,) grows on mountains and dry 
soils; several degi'ees further north and south than the first. It 
is found high on the range of the Himalayan Mountains, and is 
cultivated in the northern provinces of China, in Hungary, 
Westphalia, Virginia, Maryland, Illinois, Missouri, etc. It was 
introduced into Charleston, S. C, from Canton, in 1772. 

319. The States in which Rice is chiefly cultivated are 



138 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



1840. 



1850. 



South Carolina, - 60,590,861 lb.s. 159,930,613 lbs. 

Georgia, - - 12,384,732 " 38,950,691 " 

Louisiana, - 3,604,534 " 4,425,349 " 

Nortla Carolina, 2,820,388 " 5,465,868 " 

Mississippi, - - 777,195 " 2,719,856 " 

Besides Vii-ginia, Florida, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, Ten- 
nessee, Kentucky, Missouri (700 lbs.) and Iowa (^500 Ibs.J 
The total crop of the United States was, 1840, 80,841,422 lbs; 
1850, 215,312,710 lbs. The rice grown in South Cai-oliua is 
considered the finest in the world, ha\iug much imj)roved in 
quality in that State. 

320. The Wild like, of the JJT'orth Western Lakes, which is gathered 
and eaten b}' the Indians, belongs to a different botanical family, and 
is known as Zizania aquatica. It is not cidtivated. The Patent Office 
Report, 184G, p. 289, mentions a grain by the name of Ilunr/ry Rice, 
cultivated at Sierra Leone, Africa, as wortiiy of introduction into this 
country ; but it is probably a species oi MlVet, and not a true Rice. 

321. Unhusked rice consists of: {^Johnston.) 

Hu.sk, - - - - - - 20.91 

Grain, ...... 79.09 

Carolina Rice, (A,) and Rice Flour (B,^ gave : 

A. B. 

Water, - - - - - 13.0 14.6 

Ash, .... 0.33 035 

322. Considering a rice plant in its dry mature state to 
weigh 100 grains, the mineral matter in the diffbreut paiis of 
the plant are as follows : [Ske2)ard.J 

In the stubble and root, .... 36.08 

Straw and leaves, .... 36.08 

Husk, ...... 14.20 

Cotyledon and Epidermis, ... 11.70 

Clean rice, •--.-- 1.94 

100.00 

323. Dry rice contains : i^Payen.) 

Starch, ....-- 86.9 

Gluten, (tc, - . - . - 7.5 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 139 

Fatly matter, - - - - - 0.8 

Sii2;ar and Gum, ----- 0.5 

Epidermis, ------ 3.4 

Saline matter, (ash) - - - - 0.9 

Rice contains less fatty matter tlian any other grain, and tlie 
greater portion of the fat is contained in the outer coats. Jolin- 
ston found in the siftings or cleanings of rice, from 5 to 5^ per 
cent, of fatty matter. 

324. Inorganic analyses of Rice grain (A,) and husk (B.) 
(^Johnston.) 

Potash, - - - - 

Soda, . . - - 

Magnesia, - . - 

Lime, - . . - 

Pliosplioric acid, - - - 

Sulphuric acid, - - - 

Silica, 
Peroxide of iron, ... 

Varieties of rice from India give a mucli larger per ceutage 
of ash than those grown in the United States. This grain is 
probably less nutritious than any other ordinarily used by man; 
as it contains a comparatively small proportion of glutinous or 
nitrogenous matter. 

325. The soil adapted for tlie common rice is of a marshy 
and wet character, containing much organic matter, which can 
be overflowed or drained when requisite; but it will grow 
(though less profitably) on light, moist uplands without irriga- 
tion, when cultivated with the hoe or plow. On wet lands, the 
embankments and ditches being prepared, the soil is well 
plowed, the seed sown at the rate of If io 2^ bushels per acre, 
and harrowed in with a light harrow, thickly set with teeth. 
In South Carolina, from April to May, is the usual season. 
Immediately after, the water is let on, so as barely to overflow 
the ground. As soon as the grain begins to swell, the water is 
withdrawn. When the plant is three inches high, the water is 



A 


B 


1848 


1.60 


10.67 


1.58 


11.69 


1.96 


1.27 


l.OI 


53.36 


1.86 




0.92 


3.35 


89.71 


0.45 


0.54 



140 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

again let on, leaving the top leaves a little above it. A fort- 
night before harvest, the water is finally drawn off. 

326. Rough rice, while the husk is still attached, is called 
Paddy \ and large quantities are exported in this condition. 
A peculiar mill is required for cleaning the husk from the 
grain, and in this j^rocess large amounts of "Rice flour" are 
formed. The "flour," the chati" and the straw are used as ma- 
nure for this crop, and are deemed among the very best. The 
chaff is spread even over the surface, about three inches deep, 
and ])lowed in. The straw can be safely used Avhen the field is 
fallowed. It is then put on the land thick, and bedded in. 
Prof. Shepard says "The planter who sells his crop in the con- 
dition of Rough Rice, robs his land of 27.84 per cent of the 
mineral ingredients of this species of produce, while on the other 
hand, he who sells it as clean rice, abstracts from them but 2 
per cent, of these ingredients." 

327. The Upland Rice is sown in April and is ripe in Sep- 
tember. The usual method is to sow it in drills about 18 
inches apart ; but if the land is well prepared and clean, it may 
be sown broadcast. 

328. The yield of an average crop of common rice in South 
Carolina is about 40 bushels per acre, while a good crop will 
give as high as 55 bushels. We find the product of 16 acres 
thus described when prepared for market : 

Rough rice, 376 bushels, give of 
Clean vice, .... 10,754 lbs. 

Small rice, .... IG)^ bushels. 

Floiii, .... 31 " 

The Upland Rice yields from 25 to 30 bushels an acre. 

329. Rice is measured by the Barrel of 600 lbs, and by the 
Tierce. 

330. This grain is eaten boiled in its clean state; it is ground 
into flour; and starch is made from it. M.inufactured on a 
large scale, Patna rice yields 80 per cent of marketable starch; 



AGRICtTLTURAt TEXT-BOOK. 141 

8.2 per cent, of fibrous stjirch granules; and 11.8 per cent, of 
gluten, bran, and a small quantity of light starch. In India^ 
a fermented intoxicating liquor called arrack is prepared from 
it When damaged, it is occasionally used for feeding hogs and 
fowls, and though deficient in oil, the large amount of starch 
which it contains enables it to fatten. The refuse from rice- 
mills is probably more fattening than the clean grain. 

331. Microscopic examination of tbe soil of rice fields shows it to be 
filled witli minute animal forms and shells capable of su[)pl_yiiiga large 
amount of phosphoric acid, the chief inorganic ingredient of this grain, 

332. Buckwheat ('derived from the German Buchweitzen 
** Beech-wheat," from the resemblance of the seeds to the Beech 
mast) is not properly a grain, but belongs to the family of 
knotweeds, of which there are twenty species in the Northern 
United States. It is probably a nati^•e of China. There are 
three cultivated species; (a,) Common Bi\c\i\\\\eat, Polygonn7n 
Fago}-)yrum; (h,) Tartarian Buckwheat, P. tataricum, and 
(c,) Notch-seeded Buckwheat, P. emarginatum. There do not 
appear to be any varieties. 

In the Trans. N. Y. State Agricultural Society, 1848, p. 572, mention 
is made of a Blue Buckwheat, erown in Sullivan county. Its peculiari- 
ties are, 1. It is less injured by the sun. 2. Can be sown earlier. 3. 
Weighs heavier ; and 4. Makes from 3 to 5 lbs. per bushel more flotir 
of a better quality, than common buckwiieat. The flour sold for 25 
cents per 100 lbs. more in the New York Market. In one instance it 
yielded 41 bushels per acre. Whether this is a variety, or one of the 
above mentioned, we are unable to decide. 

The first is chiefly cultivated in America, the second in Italy, 
the last in China. In Europe it is grown for food from Russia 
to Italy, Great Britain excepted ; and being a very short time 
in the ground, can be adapted to great differences of climate. 
In the United States it can be grown in every section, but is 
chiefly cultivated north of North Carolina and Tennessee. The 
total crop in 1840, was 7,291,743 bushels, and in 1850, 
8,956,916; New York (3,183,955 bushels) and Penueylvania 



A 


B 


6.88 


9.9-1 


65.05 


44.12 


S647 


40.26 


1.09 


2.30 


15.12 


14.19 



142 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK> 

('2,193,692 busliels) being the largest producers. Micliigan is 
the fifth largest, giving 472,917 bushels, being only inferior to 
Ohio and NeAV Jersey. It has probably been grown in America 
about 150 years. 

333. Organic analyses of Buckwheat flour from Vienna (A,) 
and Tartarian Buckwheat from liohenheim (B.) [Horsford 
and Krocker.) 

Gluten and Albumen, 

Slarcb, .... 

"Woody fibre, Gum, Sugar, 

Ash, .... 

Moistuie in fresh sub&tance, - 

334. Inorganic analyses of Buckwheat froju Cleves (^Bichon) 
[A,) and New York. {^Salishury.) (B,) 

A B 

Chlorine, - - - 0.20 

Potash, - - - 8.74 23.33 

Soda, - " - 20.10 a. 04 

Lime, - - - 6.66 0.14 

Magnesia, - - - 10.38 2.66 

Oxide of iron, - - 1.05 

Phosphoric acid, - - 50.07 Earthy phosphates, 57.60 

Silica. - - - 0.G9 ' 7.06 

Sulphuric acid, - - 2.16 7.30 

There exists a striking identity in the composition of buck- 
wheat and rye. In the seeds of the former there is 27 per 
cent, of husk. The 73 per cent, of flour, closely resembling 
that of rye in color and properties, contains 10^ of gluten, and 
52 of ordinary starch. The greatest resemblance also exists in 
t'le constitution of the ash when both plants have been grown 
on the same soil. The dried grain of rye contained 2.4 per 
cent., that of buckwheat 2.1 per cent, of ash. 

335. Boussingault gives the following as contained in the 
grain (A,) and straw (B,) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 143 





A 


B 


Water per cent, . . - 


- 12.5 


11.6 


Nitrogen per ceut of dried, 


240 


54 


" " not dried, 


- 2.10 


0.43 


Ammonia dried, calculated from the nitrogen, 


2.94 


0.G5 



336. Inorganic analysis of Buokwiieat straw [Sprengel) 
100,000 parts of the dry straw contained 3203 parts of ash: 
Potash, - - - - - -332 

Soda, ---.-. tJ2 

Lime, ...... ^q^ 

Magnesia, ..... I2D2 

Alumina, • - . - - - 26 

Oxide of iron, " - - - • 15 

Oxide of manganese, - - - - - 32 

Silica, -...-. j^jQ 

Chlorine, - - - . - - 95 

Sulphuric acid, - - . . - 217 

Phosphoric acid, ..... ggs 

3,203 

337. An acre of 28 bushels, weighing 56 lbs. per bushe! 
gives of the grain, an average of 

Organic matter, - - . . 1326 lbs. 

Ash, - - . - . 22 " 

Nitrogen, - - . . . 30 « 

Phosphoric acid, - - . . 11" 

338. Proximate organic analysis of Buckwheat: {Salishury.) 
Starch, ----.. 42.47 
Sugar and extractive matter, - - . gjy 
Dextrine and gum, - . . - 1 GO 
Epidermis, - - . . . 144^ 
A light gray matter insoluble in water and boiling alcoLol, - 10.10 
Albumen, - - - . . (j -^q 
Casein, - - - . . 0.78 
Matter di«.'!olved out of the bodies insoluble in water, by boil- ? 

ing alcohol; ri.sing with .n substance analogous to water ( ~'^^ 
Oil, - . - . . . •' 0.47 

Water, ...... jggg 

98.24 



144 AGRICL'LTrRAL TEXT-BOOK. 

339. Buckwheat is used as food for man and animals, and is 
decidedly nutritious. Its fattening qualities are found in prac- 
tice to be higher than could he supposed from analysis ; and 
the meat formed by it is of peculiarly fine quality. The outer 
liusk being hard, this grain should always be ground or cooked 
before feeding. 

340. The uncrusbed grain, and the fiesli straw produce a remarkable 
and hitherto unexplained cfffct upon swine. If allowed to feed in a 
newly harvested buckwheat field, the head and ears are attacked by an 
eruption, with apparently intense itching, while the animal presents all 
the symptoms of intoxication. In severe cases death ensues. So, like- 
wise, tiie fresh grain fed whole in large quantities, disorders the bowels ; 
but if ground or cooked, these symptoms are not observed. In the latter 
case the husk is passed by the animal entirely undigested. Further 
investigation is necessary to explain these phenomena. 

341. The straw is harsh, and not relished by horned cattle; 
but horses will eat all except the coarsest parts, and keep in 
o-ood condition upon this alone. Buckwheat straw, unthrashed, 
smd cut up is excellent fodder for working horses. It must be 
kept in a dry place, as it readily absorbs moisture, ferments, 
and spoils. If boiled, the straw will form a thick jelly. 

342. Buckwheat is frequently sown for the purpose of plow- 
ing in as a green manure to precede the wheat crop. Though 
not equal to clo^ er, it is yet beneficial to lands deficient in 
organic matter. It should be turned under Avhen beginning to 
blossom. 

343. The lighter class of soils is supposed to be the best for this 
grain, but it will prosper on any except the heaviest. Generally, 
the land receives but one plowing, and a light harrowing ; from 
2 to 3 pecks of seed to the acre are sown broadcast, and then 
■well harrowed in. In the latitude of Michigan, about the 20th 
June, is the best time to sow ; but we have known good crops 
to succeed barley, when the frosts were late. 

344. In harvesting, the best mode is to cradle it; rake it 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 145 

into small bundles, whicli are fastened by merely twisting the 
tops; and let it stand till dry. If cut with a scythe and left 
upon the ground, the seed is apt to shell out ; the straw dries 
slowly ; and much sand and dirt adhere to the grain. It should 
be thrashed at once as it is drawn into the barn, otherwise it 
will again absorb moisture, and heat. The best mode of thrash- 
ing is with horses, a machine being apt to break the grains. It 
must be cut before the whole is fully ripe. 

345. The crop varies from 10 to 30 or 40 bushels; 20 to 25 
being probably the average. It appears to depend nmch upon 
the state of the weather when in the fullest blossom. 

346. The legal weight of a bushel of buckwheat in Michigan 
is 42 lbs. 

347. Millet. Under this name five plants of differing 
genera, which are cultivated for their seeds, ai-e comprehended. 
They are all true grasses. 

(A.) Common Millet, Panicum miliaceinn. 

(B.) Indian or Grand Millet, Sorghum vulgare. 

(C.) Guinea Corn, Sorghum cernuum. 

(D.) Bengal Grass, or Italian Millet, Sctaria itaUca. 

{E.) German Millet, Setaria germanica. 

Th ) first (a,) is most generally grown in the United States ; 
the othera being rarely met with. The second and third {h) 
and (c,J belong to the same family as Broom corn, [Sorghum 
saccaratum.) In other countries they are used as food for men 
and animals, and the straw or stalks as fodder. 

The Indian Millet (6,) famishes the biead of the Arabians and other 
people of the East, as well as of those of Africa. It is also eaten in 
Italy, Spain, South of Germany, and the We?t Indies. It matures per- 
fectly in the neighborhood of Deiroit. In its mode of grnwtli it 
resembles Indian corn, but the seeds are diff.-rent. In this country it 
is scarcely worth cultivating except as a curiosity, as it requires the 
same labor as corn, while its produce is smaller, and of an inferior 
quality. 

10 



146 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

348. As an article of food the Common Millet (a,) is very 
similar to rice. It does not apjiear to have been perfectly 
analysed; but the following are given as the inorganic con- 
stituents of the grain grown at Giessen, Germany. (^Jiolich.) 
Potash, ...... 9.58 

Soda, ...... 1.31 

Miignesia, ...... 766 

Lime, ....-- 086 

Phosphoric acid, - - . . .18.19 

Sulpliuric acid, • . - . - 35 

Bilica, - - . . . -59 03 

Peroxide of iron, ..... 0.63 

Chloride of sodiura, ..... 1.43 

349. The soil required for this crop is dry, rich, and well 
pulverized, sandy, rather than clay. It sshould be deeply {)lowed, 
and well harrowed. If sown broadcast, half a bushel of seed is 
tlie proper quantity, but on rich ground a peck may prove suiii- 
cient. If drilled, 8 quarts of seed are enougii. If intended as 
a fodder crop, more seed should be used, it being regulated in 
proportion to the richness and condition of the soil. It will do 
■well on land that is too light for grass. The time for sowing 
in Michigan is from the 1st of May to the 1st of July, or even 
later if intended for soiling; June is the URial month in Nevir 
York. After sowing, the field should be rolled. When in- 
tended for a grain crop, it must not be allowed to become 
entirely ripe, or much will be lost by shelling. It may be 
cradled and bound, or cut with a scythe and raked into bundles. 
In New York, as much as 2f tons of fodder, and 32^ bushels 
of seeds have been raised to the acre. As high as 60 to 80 
bushels of seed per acre are said to have been produced. (Allen.) 
The usual crops are from 1 to 2 tons of straAv, and 20 to 30 
bushels of seed. 

350. In the United States, Millet seed is never used for 
human food; but when ground into meal it is excellent for 
fattening animals. The chief use of Millet is to tike the placo 



AGniCULTCRAL TEXT-BOOK. 147 

of Lay when that is hkely to fail; or to serve for soiling; for 
both which purposes it is admirably adapted. According to 
Boussingault, dry Millet straw contains 0.96 per cent, of nitro- 
gen, and 147 Ibts. of it are eqiial in nourishment to 100 lbs. of 
ordinary natural meadow hay. If intended for hay alone, it 
should be cut as soon as the head is formed, and treated liko 
any other grass. 

351. Canary Grass, (Fkahris canarieyisis ) is rarely culti- 
vated in the United States, and what is used among us for 
feeding tame birds ('its only vaJue^ is chiefly impoj-ted. It is, 
however, well adapted for most parts of this countiy ; and might, 
it is believed, be rendered profitable, if grown on a small scale. 
It is a native of the Canary Islands, but is now grown in the 
south of England, and other countries. It requires a rich, fine, 
loamy soil. The seeds are drilled about a foot a part, as early 
in spring as frosts will permi*, at the rate of 4 to 5 gallons per 
acre. Afterwards, the space between the rows must bo kept 
well worked with a shovel plow, or some similar implement, and 
perfectly free from weeds. It may be harvested, cured, and 
thrashed like any other grain. From 30 to 35 bushels per aero 
is the ordinary yield, and from that to 50 bushels per acre. 
The straw is rough and coai-se, but may serve for winter fodder 
and bedding. 

These are all the Cereal plants grown in the Northern United 
States for their seeds. 



CHAPTER XII. 



LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.— BEANS; PEAS; 
LENTILS; VETCHES; AND LUPINES. 

352. This class of plants derives its name from the seeds producing 
legumin, a substance identical in compositi.'n with the casein (or cheese) 
of milk ; corresponding with the gluten for nitrogenous compouml) of 
the cereals. It is formed of Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen, 
with Phosphate of Lime and Sulphur incorporated ; but the exact 
quantities do not appear to be accurately ascertained. (Curpenter.) 

353, Under this liead several botanical genera are included, 
most of them natives of temperate climates; and there are 
many varieties produced by cultivation. The following may be 
enumerated as those chiefly used by man : 
(A,) Common or English bean, Faba vulgaris 

including Field beans, Sow, Horse, Gar- 
den beans, &c. 
(B,) Kidney beans, Phaseolus vulgaris. 

( C,) Lima beans, Phaseolus lunatus. 

with several other species and varieties. 
(Di) Common lentil, Ervum lens. 

(JEJ,) Bastard lentil, Ervum Ervilia. 

(F,) One flowered lentil, Ervum monanthos. 

(G,) Chick pea, Cicer arietinum* 

(H\) Common pea, Fisian sativvm. 

with several species and varieties. 

* This long cultivated pea \\as found by Capt. Stansbury's party, growing wild in 
tbe Interior of Oregon, and in the valleys nf the Utiih, in sandy bottom land. {Explo- 
ration, p. 385.) It is a native of the South of Europe, and is grown in India under the 
name of Oram. It has always been supposed to require a hot climate. 



AGEICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



149 



(I,) Lupines, Lupinus alhus. 

(J,) Taie or vetch. Vicia saliva. 

with several other species, 

(K^) Broad bean, Windsor bean, Vicia faha. 

354. Ill the United States the cultivation of leguminous 
plants is chiefly confined to Kidney Beans {b,) and Peas (h,) 
some varieties of which prosper in every section of the country. 
In the census they are united together ; and no account appears 
to have been taken of them before 1850. In that year the 
total crop was 9,219,975 bushels, or nearly double the quantity 
of barley grown. North Carolina produced the lai-gest amount, 
viz: 1,584,252 bushels, while South Carohua, Georgia, and 
Mississippi, alone besides, produced each, over a million of 
bushels. The crop of Michigan was 74,254 bushels. In the 
Northern States, these crops may be considered as of inferior 
value. 

355. As regards the analyses, it will be most convenient to 
class them all together; and we shall be obliged to depend 
chiefly on the labors of foreign chemists. 

The following by Horsfoi'd and Krocker of Germany, and 
Thompson of Scotland are believed to be correct. 





Table 

Pea, 

Vienna. 


Field 

Pea, 

G essen. 


Table 
Bean, 
Vienna. 


l.arne 

White Lentils, 
Bean, 1 Vienna. 
Giessen. 


Sow 

Bean, 

Scotland 


Vegetable casein & albumen 

Stnrch, 

■Gum, ... 

A*-h, 

Skin, - 


28 02 

:<8Hi 

28 .Ml 

3.18 

7 65 


zii 18 

\ 66.23 

2 79 
611 


28..'i4 

37. SO 

29 20 

4 38 

4.11 


29.31 

1 66.17 

4<U 
4.41 


30 16 

40.00 

25.06 

2.60 

■> 


29.43 
|6:.61 

3.96 

? 


Moisture in the fresh seed . 


13 43 


19..'i0 


1^41 


1580 


13.01 


10,60 



From this table it appears that the nutritious qualities of each 
species is very nearly the same. The flesli-forming constituents 
are large, and there is suflicient starch for all the purposes of 
life, but little or nothing to form fat. Other analyses give from 
1.5 to 2.1 per cent, of oil or fatty matter in beans, and from 1.9 



150 



AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 



to 2.7 per cent, in peas, probably in or immediately beneath tlie 
ekin. ' 

356. Ultimate analyses of White Peas, (A,) and Pea Straw 
(B,) (Boussingault) raised on manured land, yielding 16 
bushels per acre, weighing 62 lbs. per bushel. One part of 
peas, after complete drying, weighed 0,914; one pait of dried 
pe:is left of ash 0.0314. Of the straw, the acre produced 22 or 
S3 cwts. ('of 112 Ibs.^ One part of the straw, after drying, 
weighed 0,802 ; one part of this left of tish 0.1 132. And Scotch 
Beans, diied at 2 1 2 ° C C7. j ( Thompson.) 





A 












B 


C 




I 


" 




Cnrbon, 


4(5.06 


46 94 


45 80 


45.59 


Hydrogen, 


6(19 


6 24 


5 00 




Oxvgfii, 


40 53 


.39 .SO 


35 57 




Kilnigen, - 


4.18 


4 18 


2.31 


4.61 


Ash. - 


3.14 


314 


1132 


3 96 



lO.fiO per cent, of water was expelled from the Beans in the process of 
drjfing. 

357. Inorganic analyses of leguminous plants: 





Will 

and Fre 

seiiiu!). 


Biclion 


Bicbon. 


Lc 


vi. 


Thomp- 
Kon. 




Pea. 


Pea. 


?ow 
Bean. 


Benn. 


Lentil. 


S.-c.ch 

Bi'iin 

Mial. 


Pofaxh ... 


39.?. 1 


•M i9 


2<i.«>2 


;<Hh9 


34.31 


23.15 


8ndii • 


:i.9s 


12.7(i 


19<I6 


11 -H 


13 311 


9 :2 


IJ.IM! 


ft.91 


2 4H 


7 2*5 


5 90 


6 24 


5 18 


JMn^iK'siii 


6.4* 


H6(l 


8 81 


9'3 


241 


9ia 


Oxidi» of Iron 


ms 


0.9o 


1 o:{ 


0.11 


19>^ 


1 so 


Pho» liiiic acid 


a^.'io 


34.57 


3791 


31.31 


35.b2 


35.25 


Clit' Tide of sodium 


3.71 












Clilorine 




0.31 


1.48 


33 


4.56 


175 


B>llpl)uric acid 


4.91 


3..'^6 


1 ru 


247 




129 


Silicit • 




0.2.S 


2.46 


(1.44 


1.31 


13.12 



358. Inorganic analyses of Field Pea (A,) and Straw (B.) 
(i'rof. Way.) 



A 


B 


l.a4 • 


. 5.3C 


34.81 


4 50 


5.G8 - 


- 5 66 


182 


1474 


6 32 - 


- 37.D9 


6.57 


6.73 


0.r)9 - 


- 1.7G 


40.19 


17.17 


065 - 


- 2 48 


0.68 


3.57 


1.42 - 





AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 161 

Silica, 

Plm-iphoric acid, 

Su!|)liiiric ai-.id, • - - 

Carlxiiiic acid, 

Lime, ... 

M i^'iiesia, 

P iiixiiie of iron, 

PoUinh. .... 

SoJ.l, • - • 

Chlorile of siujium, • 

Chloride of pota~.siuin, 

These analyses prove tbat pea straw is a peculiarly valuable 
fodder. According to Boussingault, dried pea straw contains 
1.95 per cent, of nitrogen; and 64 lbs. of it, are equivalent for 
nourishment to 100 lbs. of ordinary hay, while 27 lbs. of white 
peas, aud 25 lbs. of beans (b,) are equivalent to 100 Ib.s. of 
bay. 

359. Nutritive matter derived from an imperial acre of peaso, 
producing 25 bushels or lOOO lbs. (Stephens.) 

Hii^k or woody fibre, - - - 130 lb«. 

Starch, <^um, Ac, - - - 800 " 

Oiuten, - - - - 380 « 

Qii or iM, ■ - - 34 " 

Saline matter, or neh, - • « 48 " 

36t'. Siit;nr appear* to he contained in only a few of the Icgnminoua 
plants as in tlic Surjar-jien ; yiiin, <«n tlie coiitniry, mucus, and pectic 
acid, a wax-iilte Ruhstaucc, :ind ilie saiiie .sails as in tiie r<'ieals, are con* 
Btant injjicdients in all. In llie <.kin«, pariiciilarly of lentils, taiinin is 
found. A larf;e qiiaiitily of potnsli and soda, and a larger propoiiioii 
than usual of sulpli'iric acid. cli.«racierize llieir aslics. The ler/uiiiitiof 
the pt'a and bt-an diffeis fioni the tjlutcn of wheat in being scduble ia 
vater, aiul in veiy dilute acid or alkaline sidutions. 

361. The Pea most commonly cidtivated in the Northern 
States, in fields, is the Grei/ or Canada Pea, (Pisum ar- 
vense;) but varieties of the White Pea (P. Sativum,) are also 
grown on a large scale. In Virginia aud the States southwards 



152 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOE. 

The Chiclcasaw Pea, The Cow Pea, The Black-eyed Pea, and 
others, unknown at the north, are in common use, where they 
are depended upon for pasture, as clover is with us. 

362. The soil best adapted to tliis crop is a loam, a little in- 
clining to clay, abounding in the alkalies. Barn yard manures, 
freshly applied, are injurious as forming much straAv at the ex- 
pense of the seed; but ashes, plaster, and lime, and probably 
guano, may be used with much benefit. Land habitually wet 
should not be sown with peas, 

363. Unless the soil is very highly cultivated and very fria- 
ble, plow in the fall, laying the furrows up high ; and again, 
crossways in the sjii-ing, so soon as the earth is sutHciently dried. 
Harrow thoroughly, and deeply . The common quantity sown 
in New York is 1 to 1^ bushels per acre, but the Scotch use 
4^ bushels; and in the United States, from 3 to 4 bushels are 
preferable to the smaller quantity. The goodness of the crop 
greatly depends upon the roots being so deeply buried that they 
are beyond the risk of the earth around them dr]'ing up in 
summer. To ensure this, as it is very difficult if not impossible 
to cover the seed evenly with a harrow, they should be plowed 
in with a wheat cultivator, so as to leave them from 2 to 1\ 
inches or more below the surface, and then the field should be 
well rolled. 

364. Harvesting is efiected with the scythe, the straw being 
rather torn up and rolled into heaps than cut; or when fully 
ripe, the roots may be easily and quickly pulled with a horse 
rake. Pease are then left on the ground till dry, and are either 
put away in the barn ; or, as is preferable, thrashed as they are 
hauled in. This may be done with the flail, or horses, the lat- 
ter being the most expeditious and cheapest. The bottom of 
the wagon should be tight to prevent waste. 

365. In Virginia, peas are frequently grown among corn, be- 
ing planted between the corn hills, and made at the expence of 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 153 

very little additional tillage, other than what the corn alone 
would receive. After securing enough for seed, the pease are 
usually fed off the land to hogs, and in that way, are a very 
important auxiliary to the crop of corn : while the ciung, and 
straw plowed in, manure the land for the next season. 

366. In other southern States, the Coxv^ Indian, or Stock 
Pea, is much relied on for pasture, and as a fertilizer. It is 
sown broadcast, or in drills, or it is hoed in among corn, when 
the culture of the latter is finished. Under any circumstances, 
the pea is valuable as a green manure ; but the cost of seed is 
too great, and the quantity of straw too small to render it pop- 
idar for this purpose. 

367. The great enemy of this vegetable, and one which dis- 
courages its more extended cultivation is the Pea-weevil, or 
Pea-bug, (Bruchus PisL) 

After the peavines have flowered, and when the peas are just begin- 
ning to swell in the pod, the weevils deposite their eggs singly, in the 
pod, just above the pea, chiefly at night, or during cloudy weallier. The 
grubs, as soon ns hatched, penetrate into the pease; and in time bore a 
round liole from the centre to the bull, leaving the latter, and generally 
the geim of the future sprout untouched. The grub is changed to a 
pupa within its hole in the pea, in the autumn ; and from November to 
the spring casts its skin again, beconies a beeile, and gnaws a hole 
through thetbin hull in order to escape, which frequently does not hap- 
pen before the pes.se are planted fiu' an early crop. Pease containing 
this insect may be detected by a minute hole, and dimple. It may be 
killed by immersion in very hot wat^r ; but as the mi.scliief is already 
done, ai d as the weevil lives on other plants, this proce.ss can be of little 
use. 

These attacks may be escaped, it is said, by sowing in the 
month of June, after the parent insect has ceased to deposite 
its eggs ; but as the abundance of the crop appears to depend 
on a certain amount of rain or moisture while it is in blossom, 
and as great heat is injurious to it in its early growth, equal 
difficulties or risks exist in this attempt to,finu a remedy. Till 
lately, the district lying along the River Thames in Canada, 



154 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

was fice from tlie weevil, and a large portion of the peas con- 
sumed in the Northern States were imported thence, but this 
immunit}' is said to have passed awaj'. According to Dr. Har- 
ris, the weevil, as late as 1852, was rare in New Hampshire, 
and still unknown in Maine. 

" Tlie crow-blnckliird {Q iscalus ver.ncolor.) is said to devour gTpat 
numbiTS of tliese hceilesin tlie S|jrliiij ; and llif Baltiiuore Oiiole, {Icie- 
rus BalUmorc.) splits open tlie green pods for the sal<e of tlie grub con- 
tained in llie pe;i8fc, tlieiebj conlnhuting greatly to prevent tbe increase 
of tbese noxious inspects. The instinct liiat enables this bennliful bird 
to detect the lurking grub, concealed as the latter is, within llie pod aud 
tbe hull of the pe; , is worthy out highest admiration " (Horris.) 

368. The Statutes of Michigan provide no standard weight 
for the bushel of pease. The average crop is from 20 to 25 
bushels, but as high as 50 bushels per acre is not very uncom- 
mon, 

369. Pease are frequently fed to hogs. As has been already 
perceived they possess little capability to fatten, but no food can 
be given which will form ^esh more rapidly; and in this re- 
epect they are essentially useful. They should be either ground 
and cooked, or soaked and partially soured before feeding. If 
fed whole, they are apt to swell greatly in the stomach, and in- 
ju"e or even kill the animal ; but if this does not occur, much 
will be passed undigested, therefore wiisted. At jiresent, ground 
pease are made into bread in Scotland and some other coun- 
tries. Soup or gruel made of ground pease is an excellent food 
for calves. 

It is customary, in some localities, to sow pease and oats together, for 
the purpose, afterwa'ds, of feeding to horses The supposed benefit de- 
rived is the upholding of the pea, 'is it clings to the straw of the oat. 
We are inclined to think, however, that the oat will suffer as much or 
more from the overshadow inij of liie iiea, as the pea gains from the pro- 
tection of the oat ; aud prefer mixing tbe two afterwards as we requir« 
them. 

In son.e soils, a heavy crop of pease proves benefic.al in destroying 
weeds ; aud leaves the grouud both clean aud niellow. The roots of 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 155 

this plant render tbe soil very friable ; and in this lespect arcbenefici.il, 
mechanically, on adlii-si^'e clays. 

370. Beans. In the United States, the EngHsli Bean, (a,) 
(which in that country takes so important a place in the rota- 
tion in clay soilsj does not prosper. Our climate appeai-s to 
be ei:,her too hot or too dry for it. With us three species or 
varieties, belonging to the genus Phaseolus (b,) are commonly 
grown as a fii'ld crop, the lanje white bean, the small white 
bean, and the China bean, the latter having a spot of deep red 
upon it. Some 30 other varieties may be found in gardens — 
known as climbing beans and bush beans; and in Franco and 
England as Harricot Beans. 

371. The above (b,) will grow well on any soil, but sandy 
or gravelly lands are generally pieferred, both on account of 
their being more easily kept clean, and because upon them the 
seed is less apt to be damaged in case of rain when ripening. 
Upon clay and other retentive soils, the pods which lie upon 
the ground are easily injured and rotted when nearly ready to 
harvest. Upon sandy lands, also, the seeds ripen earlier and 
more evenly. 

372. Beans may be grown in hills, in rows, or broadcast. 
The following is considered the best mode of culture, succeed- 
ing a hoed crop manured the previous season. Plough twice, 
and harrow well, or plow once, and render the surface fine with 
the cultivator, and roll. About the 1st June, plant in rows 22 
inches apart, — either using a drill, or having marked out the 
rows with a corn marker, — at the rate of six beans to the foot. 
Hoe about the 26th of June, and again about the 16th of July; 
perfectly destroying the weeds. It is believed by the most skil- 
ful growers of this crop, that it is better not to plow, or other- 
Avise disturb the ground, if the weeds can be kept down by hoe- 
ing. When the pods have turned yellow they are ready for 
harvesting, which is done by pulling the plants, and striking the 
roots against a stick held m the loft hand, till tliey are clean; 



156 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

the plants are tlien lightly stacked on tlie ground, rails or blocks 
of wood having been laid for the purpose. The stacks should 
not be so large that the sun-shine and wind cannot enter. 
When entirely dry, they should be hauled, and immediately 
thrashed by flail, otherwise the pods will again absorb the mois- 
ture, and heat. The beans should be spread for a few days ou 
the barn floor and occasionally turned until they are perfectly 
dry ; as even, after thrashing, if thrown into too large a heap, 
they will be apt to mould. 

373. The following is an account of the expense of raising a 
crop of one acre as above, in Jefferson county, '^^. Y., in 1851. 
The kind used was the " small early Vermont Bean." 

Plowing, harrowing and working, - - $175 

Plaiitiiiq^ by hand, - - - 75 

First hoeing, - - - 113 

Second hoeing, ... 3.y9 

Pulling and stacking, - - - 2.40 

Diawing, thrashing, clcnning, and measuring, - 1.75 

One bushel of beans for seed, - - 1.00 

Board, - - - - 250 

Interest ou land, - - - 350 

$17.87 



Value of Crop. 
34 2-32 bushels beans at $1.00, - - 34.06 

One Ion of straw, <fec., - - - 5 09 



$3906 
Deduct expences, ... 17.87 

Net proceeds per acre, - - - $21.19 

374. The crop varies from 15 to 40 bushels. As high as 60 
bushels is said to have been raised to the acre in New York. 
Of late yeai-s, the supply has rarely proved commensuiate with 
the demand. 

375. The straw is eaten by horned cattle and sheep. For 
the last it is, in common with pease and pea straw, particularly 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 157 

excellent in consequence of the large amount of sulpliur -wliich 
it contains — this being an important element in wool. 

376. Lentils are rarely or never cultivated in the United 
States except as a garden plant. The seed has been distributed 
(1853) by the Patent Office; and in this manner this useful es- 
culent may become better known. In the south of Europe 
and in Asia it enters largely into the food of the people. There 
are several varieties of it, distinguished by the color of their 
seeds, the greater or smaller growth of their stems, and the 
earlmcss of their period of ripening. 

377. The Lentil requires a somewhat light soil and Avarmth. 
It is greatly less productive of straw than the pea and the bean, 
and the produce of seed is also comparatively small. There 
could be no benefit in introducing it into field-culture in this 
country. In gardens, it may be cultivated as peas are. 

378. The Tare or Vetch is largely gi-own in Great Britain 
as a forage-plant, for which purpose it is much esteemed. In 
the United states it does not appear to be usually cultivated, 
though it will prosper in the northern States. There are sev- 
eral species and varieties ; and in situations where grass is defi- 
cient, and regular rotations of crops are employed; or where 
grass fails early in the season, as on many of the Prairies, this 
crop would prove beneficial. All animals are fond of it, and 
all thrive on it in an eminent degree. Hogs may be fattened en- 
tirely on it. It causes milch cows to give more butter than any 
species of green food ; and horses can be kept fat on it. 

379. In Europe it is sown both in autumn and in spring, but 
in our Northern States, it would necessarily be a spring crop 
only. It requires land in good condition and free from weeds. 
In Scotland, manure is always given it, and the land is well 
worked. It possesses the advantage of growing on all classes 
of soils. It is generally sown broadcast, at the rate of 3 to 4 
bushels per acre ; but oats are frequently mixed with it, when 



168 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

H to 2 bushels of Tares, and 1 bushel of oats are enough. 
Light or poor soils require more seed. The Ilopetown^ or 
White-flowered Tare^ is considered the most valuable variety. 
When intended for fodder, Tares are usually cut and fed to 
stock in stables or yards. If intended for seed they may be 
treated as pease, being cut with a scythe. If fodder is wished 
for, sowing should take place in rotation : and the plant be used 
after the pods are formed, but long before the seeds become 
ripe. 

3S0. Lupines are grown with us as a garden flower, but in 
Italy are used both ;is food, and to plow under as a green ma- 
nure, a practice derived from the ancient Romans. The flavor 
is said to be coarse and bitter. They floiuish in light sandy 
lands, but can be of no value to us. 



CHAPTER X 1 1 1 . 



GRASSES AND OTHER FODDER PLANTS. 

381. As tlie production of domestic animals, and manuro 
depends on grasses, we consider these as next in importance. 
The Belgians have a proverb which should be written in letters 
of gold on every barn-door: "Without dung, no crops; with- 
out cattle, no dung; without grass, no cattle." 

382. The botanical family of Grasses ( Grawinece^) is ex- 
tremely numerous; there are few parts of the world where 
some species are not found growing wild ; while in moderate 
climates they form the great mass of vegetable production. In 
Agriculture, they are usually divided into (a,) wild grasses, and 
(by) cultivated or tame grasses. These latter (by) are glasses 
of peculiar value, which are regulaily sown ; while the former 
(a,) spring up naturally wheie they are found, without sowing. 
With very few exceptions, grasses do not change into varieties 
by cultivation, like other plants, but remain the same as when 
wild. In England, over thirty distinct species are employed 
for different soils and purposes. In the United States, not 
more than half a dozen, at the utmost, are usually sown, though 
we have a great variety of wild species. Seventy-two have al- 
ready been detected in Michigan, without counting those that 
have been introduced. The culture of hay, at present, is prin- 
cipally confined to the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, 
from which the Southern markets aie mainly supplied, in tho 
form of pressed packages or bales. 

The reasoD for uiiiug so nianj npecies of grasses as ibe English do, 



160 AGRICULTDRAL TEXT-BOOK. 

(and in which respect it is very important that we should follow theif 
example,) is that a greater weight can be produced on an acre ; some 
are of temporary duration, some of permanent ; the period ot matura- 
tion differs, so tliat, when mixed, some are always in the best condition 
for pasture; the nutritive power differs ; some are best adapted for pas- 
ture, others for meadow ; and some prosper in one sort of soil, others 
in another sort. Mixed grasses are found to feed uuimals more profit- 
ably than one single kind ; and it may be said, that ihe im| roveraent 
of stock in Great Britain commenced, and has kept pace with the intro- 
duction of cul'ivated grasses, and other fodder plants. Great pains are 
taken in that country to find and cultivate the best species. In the 
United States we have been much too negligent in this respect. 

In 1840, the hay crop of the United States was 10,248,- 
108f tons; in 1850, 13,838,579 tons; in which, however, clover 
is included. 

383. The following species are the most valuable: 

(a.,) Fhlei'.m jjratense. Timothy, Herd's grass. (Meadow 
Cats-tail.*; 

(b,) Agrostis vulgaris. Red Top, Herd's grass. 

{c,) Agrostis alba. White Bent Grass, White Ked Top, 
Fiorin. (Marsh Bent Grass.) 

(d,) Muhlenhergia Mexicana. Fowl Meadow Grass. 

(e,) Poa Fratensis. Green Meadow Grass, June Grass. 
(Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass.) 

(/,) Poa covipressa. Blue Grass. 

(g,) Poa triviulis. Rough-stalked Meadow Grass. 

(h,) Dactylis glomerata. Orchard Grass. (Rouo-h Cocks- 
foot Gi-ass.) 

(i,) Lolium italicum, Italian Rye Grass. 

(j,) Lolium perenne. Perennial Rye Grass, or (Darnel.) 

(k,) Lolium anmmm. Annual do 

There is a species of Rye or Darnel grass ( Lolium tcmitlentiim,) p-eatly ref emMinf? 
the Perennial, which is poisonous to every thinj; but hojs. It is naturalized in Mas- 
eachusetts. In some parts of Europe it is a weed among wheat, and when eaten in 
flour is frequently fatal. {Abatracl of Med. Scien., June 1851, p. 299.) 

•The lust name within brackets in this list is that which is usually used by English 
writers. Those marked * belong to the South. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOS:. IGl 

(I,) Anthoxantham odoratum. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. 

(m,) Alopecurus pratensis. Meadow Fox-Tail. 

(n.,) Cynomrus cristatus. Crested Dog's-Tail. 

(o,) Avena fiavescens. Yellow Oat Grass. 

(p,) Triticum dasystacJujum. Michigan Coucli Grass. 

(q,) Phalaris Americana. Ribbon Grass. 

(r,) Festuca elatior. Tall Fescue Grass. 

(s,) Festuca pratensis. Meadow do. 

(t,) Tripsacum dactyloides. Gama Grass.* 

(u,) Sorghum halpense. Guined or Egyptian Gi-ass.* 

(v^) Cynodon dactylon. Bermuda Grass.* 

(w,) Grama.* 

Besides these there are several species of Poa aud Festuca 
that are valuable for pasture. When the subject is better in- 
vestigated, undoubtedly" many indigenous grasses will be added 
to the hst, especially from California. 

384. "We will notice, in as small a space as possible, the peculiarities 
of these grasses : (a,) is a native of both Europe aud the United 
States. It may be found growing wild in the couuties of Ingham, 
Clinton, Shiawassee, (fee, in Michigin, upon certain loamy clay soils, in 
great luxuriance, and it is known to spring up, without sowing, on 
dealing off the wood^, and plowing. It is the most generally cultiva- 
ted grass for diy soils in the United States, affording 1}^ to 2% tons of 
dry hay per acre ; and in favorable situations remains permanently 
for very many years. It abounds in seed, which is easily saved, yield- 
ing from 10 to 34 bushels pjr acre. ( Wiggins.) To save the seed, al- 
low it nearly to ripen ; mow ; bind and shock like wheat, and thrash 
with hor^s. With a proper fanning mill, the seed can be peifectiv 
cli^aned, as readily as that of any of the cereals. According to Mr. Sin- 
clair,* the nutritive value is double when ripe compared with the period 

*A few years since a very extensive examination of the nutritive value of tlie Eng- 
lish grasses was ma'la by George Sinclair, under the direction of the Duke of Jieei- 
ford at his estate of Woburn; and the results were i)ublished in au octivo volume, 
with colored copperplate en^raving^s of most of the grasses, under the name of Hortus 
Oramineus Woburnensis. The work is now very difficult to obtain. The only cojiv 
we have seen in America is in th-! liSrary of the Patent Office, ■Washington. Mucii 
interesting information was collected by Mr. S., but his labors are of less value than 
they ought to have bceu from his want of skill as au analyst, and his ignorance of tlie 
principles of nutrition. As, however, no one h:is gone over the same ground, his 
book is often quoted and referred to. The chief results will be found tubulated in 
A'.hn's Amer. Farm Bos!:, p. 1 10. 

11 



162 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

of flowering, while the weight is the same. The ripe crop exceeds the 
flowering in value as 14 to 5. It is usually sown with wheat in the 
fall, or with oats or barley in spring— the latter being preferable— and 
red clover is generally mixed with it. If sown alone, half a bushel of 
seed, or if with clover 12 quarts of grass, and one pound of clover is 
the proper quantity. Many persons sow less than this, but there is no 
economy is stinting grass seed. There should be enough to form a thick 
sod the first season. In heavy clays even more seed maybe requisite. 
Timothy may be cut in the morning, and hauled into sheds or barns the 
eame afternoon, using a bucket full of salt to each ton ; but if stacked, 
it must be drier. The faults of this grass are : 1, the coarse stem and 
head. 2. The deficieucy of leaf. 3. The small quantity of the after 
crop ; and 4, the dying out of the plant in winter in certain classes of 
soils. It is better adapted for horses and neat cattle than for sheep, and 
compares badly with the fine, leafy hay of the English meadows. It 
is well adapted for mixing wi^h other grasses. (b) and (c) Both belong 
to wet or marshy lands, and will not prosper in entirely dry soils ; they 
can, therefore, scarcely be called cultivated grasses, though they are often 
sown in such situations. They are natives of the United States. They 
have creeping roots or stolons, and are very difiicult to eradicate. The 
two greatly resemble each other, but the latter has white instead of red 
heads or flowers. In England, they are not held in much estimation. 
With us they are placed as hay, by many persons, on a level with Timo- 
thy, and for sheep they probably surpass it, the stalks being fine, and 
the leaf abundant. They afford good pasture, and grow rapidly after 
being cut or grazed. The latter species (c,) is called Fowl 3feadow grass 
in many paits of New York, a name Avhich has led to much confusion. 
If sown in marshes, they readily exterminate the coarser grasses and 
weeds, and form a productive meadow. About one bushel of seed to 
the acre should be used, or two bushels if sown on clean plowed land. 
About 1}^ tons to the acre of dry hay is the usual product, the grass 
diminishing greatly in weight after cutting, (d,) Till lately, this grasa 
has only been sown in Massachusetts, whei'e it is also called Buck-grass, 
and Swamp-ioire-grass, but it is now getting into general favor. It is 
mentioned by the Rev. J. Eliot, of Connecticut, as early as 1751, from 
whom we learn that it was supposed to have been brought into a poor 
piece of meadow in Dedham, Mass., by ducks and other wild water- 
fowls, and therefore called by such an odd name. There can be little 
doubt, however, that it is indigenous to Michigan where it is frequently 
met with in swamps. It grows tall and thick, and makes a soft and 
pliable hay. One good quality is that it does not spoil by standing 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 163 

after it is ripe, but may be cut any time from July to October. It is 
represented as yielding heavy crops ; grows about three feet high ; and 
is essentially fine in the stalk with abundance of leaf, flower, and seed. 
Indeed, it appears to be the best American grass for damp soils yet 
known, and is worthy of very extensive culture. It is found to succeed 
best in drained marshes, which can be overflowed for two or three weeks 
in the spring and winter. When sown in such situations the land should 
be plowed, and between two and three bushels of seed harrowed in, 
with or without a grain crop. It may, however, be sown in lands too 
wet to plow, though yielding in such places an inferior crop; and it 
would be well to mix the two last species (6) and (c) with it. {Dr. H. 
Wheatland in I^anncr's Companion, \ol.n, p. 5.) (e,) Is or has been 
abundant in all the Northern States, coming up immediately after the 
forests have been cut down, though it is now said to fail in the older 
Eastern States. It belongs to dry soils, and forms a thick, though shal- 
low sod, and excellent pasture, especially for sheep. In heavy timber- 
ed clay soils it is generally mixed with the indigenous white clover. 
{Trifolium repens.) The stalks or culms are short and naked, the leaves 
reclining partially on the ground, and it is only when peculiarly luxuri- 
ant that it is worth cutting for hay. It is found, however, in all old 
meadows where the soil is adapted to it. It is rarely, if ever, sown, 
though the seed may be collected without difficulty. It dries up after 
flowering in June, but in the damp climate of England, it appears to 
grow more luxuriantly. "At the time of flowering, the produce on an 
acre is 10,209 lbs., when ripe 8,507 lbs., and the lattermath (aftergrass) 
is 4,083 lbs., and bears nearly an equal value with the ripe crop." 

(/,) Is the well known Kentucky Blue Grass, so famous as pasture. 
It much resembles the last, but is of a deep color, with a bluish hue, and 
is better adapted for making hay. The late Hon. Henry Clay informed 
the writer that when he first went to Lexington, Ky., that county was 
covered with cane-brakes, the trees standing at distant intervals ; and 
as soon as the cane was destroyed the blue-grass appeared. It is said 
to be confined to a peculiar geological formation, one of the lower lime- 
rocks of the great western coal field ; and that the underlying rocks 
can be distinctly traced both in Kentucky and Ohio by the existence of 
this grass. If this proves to be everywhere the case, as present circum- 
stances incline us to believe, this grass must be considered as strictly 
local in its habitat. The seed may be purchased at the Cincinnati seed 
stores. 

(£!,) According to Prof. Gray, this grass is not a native of America, 



164 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

thougTi naturalized in some parts of the Eastern States. It resembles 
the June grass (e.) Donaldson in his 7VeaHse on Grasses does not 
speak favorably of its productiveness in England, although it is sown 
among others fur pastures. It requires a sheltered situation on damp 
clays and strong loamy soils, and is easily hurt by frosts. 

(h,) This grass is also a native of England, but has become entirely 
naturalized in the Atlantic States. It belongs to ilry soils, though it 
does well in moderately damp situations, and, in its native state, grows 
in clays and heavy loams. It prospers well in the neighborhood of De- 
troit, proving quite hardy, and is about a fiwtniglit earlier in the spring 
than either Timothy or June grass. It is a large, strong, tall grass, with 
somewhat coarse culms, aud abundance of leaf ; but, unless annually 
pastured, it has a tendency to grow in clumps instead of covering the 
ground. This is corrected by grazing the meadow in spring and fall. 
It succeeds well under trees, (hence its American name,) and the leaf, 
■when cut or eaten, continues to grow ; unlike 2\mothy, which must 
throw up a new leaf. "The produce, when flowering, is 27,805 lbs., 
per acre ; when ripe, 26,544 lb?., and the lattermath, 11,910 lbs." Un- 
der most circumstances, it is essentially a most valuable grass, and is 
much relished by all kind of stock. It is the favorite grass of (he rich 
pastures around Dublin, Ireland. The aftergrass is very abundant, and 
does not seem to suflfer from heat as much as our grasses. It should al- 
ways be sown with other species, but it ripens about a fortnight before 
Timothy. The Balled Drop-seed grass, {Muhlenhcrgia ghmcrata, Trin,) 
somewhat resembles it, and might, we are inclined to think, be profita- 
bly sown with other species in wet places. The latter is a native of 
Michigan. 

(i,) Undoubtedly stands at the head of all cultivated grasses for pro- 
ductiveness, for feeding qualities, and for hay, but like all the Rye 
grasses, it has a tendency, if allowed to seed, to impoverish the soil. It 
is probably a distinct species and not a mere variety. Compared with 
the common Rye grass, it arrives sooner at maturity ; has a greater 
abundance of foliage, which is broader and of a lighter color ; grows 
taller; spreads less on the ground ; its spikes are longer; the seed is 
lighter, smaller, and less in quantity. It is preferred by cattle to any 
other grass. It grows through winter ; is earlier in spring ; does not 
suffer from heat ; and continues growing luxuriantly till checked by 
frost. The true species is perennial, and prospers well in the neighbor- 
hood of Detroit. The great difficulty we have found with it, is that 
cattle, horses, and sheep are so fond of it, that when mixed with many 
other varieties they leave all the rest, and eat this grass deep into the 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 165 

soil, thus destroying it. "When not allowed to be pastured, it is very 
luxuriant, and makes excellent Lay, generally seeding twice a year in 
this latitude. We are inclined to believe that the common and the an* 
nual species, have often been sold for the Italian in the United States , 
and indeed, it is said that it can oidy be procured pure from a few 
great seed-dealers in England. In that country, it is usually sown with 
red clover, at the rate of 1 to 3 bushels of grass seed, and 8 to IG lbs., of 
clover seed to the acre. (See Patent Office Reports, 1B45, pp. 373, 376 ; 
1846, p. 258.) 

{j,) Is more used in Great Britain for meadows on all kinds of soil, 
and mixed with other grasses in pastures, than any other species; {k,) 
resembles it in all respects with the exception that it is an annual, and 
therefore used in rotations, where one year's grass only is required. 
Experience has given them a very high leputation, and late analyses, it 
is said, have proved them to be the most nutritive of grasses. They 
are generally sown with the clovei-s at the same rate as the previous one 
(z). They would be found highly profitable in the wheat soils of Mich- 
igan to sow with clover ; the clover not being diminished in quantity, 
while this excellent grass is added to it. They are graduallj finding 
their way into favor in the Atlantic States, though their appearance, 
compared with Timothy is unfavorable to them. There are several im- 
proved varieties, as Pacey's, Stichiey's, Jlussel's, &c. A late writer in 
the Journal of the Hlrjhland Agriad. Society, (October, 1853, p. Ill,) 
mentions the following objections to the Perennial Rye grass, {j) "Its 
growth is much stunted by being cropped or cut over ; it is impatient of 
drought ; it throws out few roots or radicle leaves ; it covers the land dur- 
ing summer with dry innutritious herbage." These objections, which 
are probably exaggerated, do not apply to the Italian species. 

{I,) Is chiefly valuable as pasture, the leaf being short, and the rich 
perfume being lost when the grass is ripe or dried. It is to this that 
the English meadows owe their well known odor ; and the butter made 
in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, (where this grass has long been 
naturalized,) its excellent flavor. It prospers well in the neighbor- 
hood of Detroit, though it is a native of Great Britain. It is there con- 
sidered the earliest of all the grasses, and succeeds best in moist locali- 
ties, such as rich deep loams, but not in wet soils. Its owes its peculiar 
scent to an aromatic essential oil of which benzoic acid i?, the base. The 
same flavor may be imparted to butter, by giving the cows 20 to 30 
grains of Benzoin twice a day, previously dissolved in hot water, and 
mixed with meal. This should constitute a part of all mixtures of grass 
seeds, intended for permament pastures. The seed is difficult to pro- 



166 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

cure, and therefore expensive, but it is found that in Pennsylvania, when 
once it is rooted, it is only exterminated by the plow. (See Patent Office 
Report, 1849, p. 373.) With the writer, in a very rich damp loam, the 
cuIq] grows fully three feet high. 

(m,) Is held to be the best permament meadow grass in England, for 
rich lands. It so greatly resembles Timothy that it is difficult to distin- 
guish it when not in blossom, but it affords much more leaf, the culm 
is finer, and the aftergrowth heavier. We have found the winters too 
cold for it in Michigan, and would not recommend it in this latitude. 

(w,) Is also an English grass, of second rate value, and has proved too 
tender for this climate. Where it prospers it is chiefly valuable for 
pasture. 

(o,) The same remarks will apply to this. (/>,) Our experience with 
this has been accidental, it having appeared in the corner of a perma- 
ment meadow, and spread over a large space, exterminating all the 
other grasses. It is an early, rich growing species, with great abund- 
ance of leaf, stalk and seed, makes excellent hay, and cattle of all kinds 
prefer it to Timothy. We mention it here that more expeiiments may 
be made with it. Should it not prove difficult to exterminate, like the 
English Couch grass, we know no native species that has more to re- 
commend it on clay soils, (g,) This, known as the Ribbon-grass of 
the Gardens, prospers luxuriantly in wet marshes, soon covering them 
over, and forming a dry elastic surface. After a few years, the leaf as- 
sumes one color. Horned cattle eat it, but horses do not appear to Uke 
it. It may be planted, by throwing roots into the water, at a foot or 
two distance from each other. The seed appears to be barren, and it is 
subject to a species of Ergot. Mr. Allen failed to make it prosper on a 
clay marsh in New York, (r) and (s.) Prof. Gray, supposes these 
grasses to be naturalized from Great Britain, and that the latter is pro- 
bably a mere variety of the former, but a more valuable gi'ass. They 
prosper best in moist or boggy alluvial soils, but are of little general in- 
terest in this country. Of the Southern grasses we know nothing per- 
sonally. The best accounts of them will be found in various volumes 
of the Patent Office Reports.* 

♦Since writing the above, a communication has been received from J. M. McAllis- 
ter, Esqr., SummervUle, Cass Co., Michigan, wlio has experimented upon a great va- 
riety of native and foreign grasses. He finds Orchard grass peculiarly valuable ; but 
the most important that he has met with, is Randal Grass, the seed of which was re- 
ceived from Virginia. He has succeeded in introducing this extensively into Cass 
and the neighboring counties. (See Farmer's CompanioK, vol iii.p.SO.) The seed 
resembles that of the Rye Grass ; the living plant we have not seen, and do not know 
the botanical name. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 167 

The Tussac Grass, from the Falkland Islands ; and the Pampas Grass, from the 
Prairies of South America, have been introduced, the first into Ireland, and the lat- 
ter into Scotland, with great promise of success. There is little doubt but that they 
would be found valuable in our Southern and Middle States. They are both remark- 
able for their feeding qualities. It is believed that the Tussac Grass requires the 
neighborhood of the Sea ; or at least, of salt springs. 

385. As regards the Analysis of grasses, little seems yet to 
have been done with accuracy. Perennial and Italian Rye 
Grass have been cai-efully examined by Thompson and Way ; 
but with this exception we have no means of ascertaining what 
species are included under the terms " Hay" and " Grass," ana- 
lyzed by the yarious chemists; while the j)robability is that 
each grass differs in its constituents, in its amount of nitrogen, 
and in the peculiar salts which it requires ; and, likewise, accord- 
ing to the soil and climate in which it is grown. The English 
meadow hay is usually formed of 20 or 30 species, besides 
clovers ; of the German we have no particulars. Mr. Norton 
gives the following " average of organic substances in Mead- 
ow Hay, from Boussingault and Johnston," but thinks the 
amount of nutritive matter too hisfh. 



Water, 


16 


Nitrogenous substances, - 


7 


Starch, - 


4 


Oil, 


3 


Gum aud sugar, - 


- 12 


Woody fibre, 


50 


Afeh, 


- 


8 





386. Thompson gives the following analysis " of almost en- 
tirely Rye grass, (Lolium perenner) 

Water, - .... 75 

Soluble Salts, ? -.^.a 

Silica and Insoluble Salts, ] ' ' ' ' ^'^ 

Organic matter, - - - - . 23.66 

Or reducing the same to its ultimate constituents, when fresh 
(A,) and dried at 212 '^F. (B,) together with hay made at 
Giessen, (Br. Will;) species of grass not mentioned (C ;) and 
hay grown in the neighborhood of Strasburg, France, (Bous- 
sinyault;) species not mentioned (D) : — 



168 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 





A. 


B. 


c. 


D. 


Carbon, 


11.35 


45.41 


45.87 


45.80 


Hydrogen, 


148 


5 93 


5.76 


5.00 


Nitrogen, 


0.46 


1.84 


1 41.55 


150 


Oxygen, 


10.39 


41.54 


38.70 


Asb, . 


1.32 


5.28 


6.82 


9.00 


Water. - 


75.00 









Tliompson found the amount of solid matter in tliis grass to 
vary from 18 to upwards of 30 per cent, according to the eai-ly 
or late period of growth. When grass first springs above the 
surface of the earth the principal constituent of its early blades 
is water, the amount of solid matter being comparatively trifling; 
as it grows, the deposition of a more indurated form of carbon 
gradually becomes more considerable; the sugar and soluble 
matter at first increasing, then gradually diminishing, to give 
way to the deposition of woody substance. 

Table of Rye grass before and after ripening. 



Water, 
Solid matter, 



18th June. 23a June. 13th July. 



76.19 81.23 611.00 

23.81 18.77 31.00 



These are imjjortant Iticts ; for if the sugar be an important 
element of the food of animals, then the farmer should cut 
grass for the purpose of hay-making at that period when the 
largest amount of matter soluble in water is contained in it. 
This is at an earlier period of its growth than when it has shot 
into seed, for it is then that woody matter predominates — a sub- 
stance totally insoluble in water, and therefore less calculated to 
serve as food to animals than substances capable of assuming a 
soluble condition. This is the first point for consideration in 
making hay, since it ought to be the object of the ftxrmer to 
preserve the hay for winter use in the condition most resem- 
bling the grass in its highest state of perfection. 

100 parts of the stem and seeds of Rye gi-ass when dried as 
hay, gave: 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



169 



Water, 

Orgauic matter, 
Ash, 



15.50 
79 52 
4.98 



1930 

75.72 

4.98 



11376 

82.548 

6.070 



387. Inorganic constituents of Rye Grass (LoUum Peren- 
ne,) Stem, (A,) and seed (B,) (Thompson,) and Italian Rye 
Grass (L. italiciim,) in flower, (C,) and in seed (D.) ( Wai/.) 





A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


Silica, ... 


64.57 


43.28 


59.18 


60.6 


Phosphoric acid, 


12.51 


16.89 


6.34 


6.3 


Snlphuiieacid, - 




3.12 


2.82 


13 


Chlorine, - . . 




trace. 


2.27* 


5.G* 


Carbonic acid, • 




3.61 






Magncitia, - - 


401 


5.31 


2.23 


2.6 


Lime, ... 


6.50 


18.55 


9.95 


12.3 


Peroxide of iron, ifcc, - 


0.36 


2.10 


0.78 


0.3 


Potash, 


8.03 


5.80 


12.45 


10.8 


Soda, 


2.17 


1.38 


3.98 


0.1 



Thompson observes " There is no doubt that these numbers 
nndergo very considerable modifications on different soils." The 
seed tends to remove a larger portion of phosphoric acid from 
the soil than the stem ; the quantity of acid found in the seed 
exceeding that in the stem by one-fourth. The same remark 
applies to the lime. The quantity of alkalies is twice as great 
in the stem as in the seed, while the total ash of the seed is a 
sixth part superior in amount to that of the stem. 

388. According to Boussingault, 10,000 parts good meadow 
hay (species not mentioned) contain 547 parts of inorganic mat- 
ter, consisting of : 

Potash, - - - 130 

Soda, - - - - 10 

Lime, - - - 107 

Magnesia, - - - .43 

Oxide of iron, ... 5 



'Chloride of Sodium. The amount of this is remarkable, and maj/ be the reason 
why cattle are sofond of this grass. 



170 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Silica, - - - - 189 

Sulphuric acid, . - - ifi 

Phoai)horic acid, - - - 32 

Chlorine, . _ - 15 

547 

The Nitrogen amounts to 1.65 equal to 2 per cent of Ammonia ; the 
fat, wax, or oil to 3.8 ; and the starch, gum, dextrine, and pectine to 50 
per cent, the rest being woody fibre and waste. 

389. Liebig gives the following summary analysis of " Hay:" 

100 parts of hay dried in the air contain 86 of dry matter. 

14 of water. 

100 
100 parts of hay dried at 212='F.=116.2 dried in air contain: 
Carbon, - - 45.8 

Hydrogen. - - 5.0 

Oxygen, - - 38.7 

Nitrogen, - - 1.5 

Ashes, - - 9.0 

100.0 
100 lbs. of hay dried at the ordinary temperature contain 1.29 nitro- 
gen. 
240 oz. of such hay=15 lbs. contain 3.095 oz. of nitrogen. 
72 oz. of oats, ^=4)^ lbs. contain 1.34 oz. of nitrogen. 

4.435 

390. Prof. "Way has given the water (A,) and flesh forming constitu- 
ents (B,) of the following grasses, in 100 parts. 

A. B. 

Sweet-scented Vernal grass, - 80.35 - - 2.05 

Orchard grass, - _ - 70 - 4.06 

Meadow barley, " - - 58.85 - - 4.59 

Timothy. - - 57.21 - 4.86 

391. The following principles may be laid down, faj The 
proportion of soluble matter yielded by any species of grass, 
when made into hay, varies not only with the age of the grasses, 
when cut, but with the soil, the chmate, the season, the rapidity 
of gi'owth, the variety of seed sown, and with many other cir- 
cumstances which ai-e susceptable of constant variation, (b,) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. ill 

Animals Lave the power of digesting a greater or less propor- 
tion of tliat part of tlieir food wliicli is insoluble in water. 
Even the woody fibre of the hay is not entirely useless as an 
aiiicle of nourishment, (c,) The most valuable constituents of 
the grass, such as the albumen, easein, starch, sugar, <fec., may 
undergo great and ruinous change by fermentation and washing 
before and after the hay is put in stack or bam ; so that ill-made 
hay, exposed to rain, may be inferior in nutritive quality to the 
coarsest straw, (cl,) The riper the straw or grass, the less solu- 
ble matter does it contain ; and soil, season, and manure will 
equally affect the quality of hay. One field wiU grow a hard 
wiry grass, while another will produce a soft and flexible plant, 
and highly nutritious hay. In England, a much higher price is 
given for hay cut oflf old grass fields, than for the first crop grown ; 
and race and hunting horses are fed on hay over a year old, 
new hay injui-ing their wind and condition, (e,) Thompson 
found that the soluble matter of hay capable of being taken up 
by cold water, was as much as 5 per cent, or nearly a third of 
the whole soluble matter in hay. Thence we may form some 
notion of the injury liable to be produced by every shower of 
rain which drenches the fields during hay harvest. But hot 
water will extract over 16 per cent, of soluble matter; and if 
we consider the warmth of the soil and hay, and also of the 
rain in summer, the loss in this coimtry is probably much greater 
than 5 per cent. (/,) The bleaching of hay is owing to the 
loss of wax, as much as 2 per cent of which may readily dis- 
appear. But this wax is important for fattening ; and bleached 
hay is decidedly deteriorated in feeding qualities. In Scotland 
100 parts of hay were found to be equivalent to 387^ pai-ts of 
grass ; or it requires neai-ly eight tons of grass to yield two tons 
of hay to the acre. By late analyses at the Koyal Agricultural 
College, Cii-encester, England, Italian Rrje Grass was found 
to contain : 

Water (in natural or green state,) - - - 80.770 



172 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Kltrogenized, or flesh - fcrminff ? natural state, - - 2.BG1 

matters, - - " 5 dried at 212 = F, - 14.87 

If on-nitrogenous, or heat and fat- ? natural state, - - 14.389 

forming matters, - • 5 dried at 212® F. - 75.09 

Inorganic matter or ash, - jrd1t1;2 0F. " - " laof 
In making hay for our own use, but more especially in purchasing 
hay, all these points must be taken into consideration. A load of hay, 
before seeding, carefully dried, not exposed to rain or heavy dews, put 
by in sheds with salt so that fermentation is impossible, bears a much 
higher intrinsic and therefore money value than hay carlessly made, on 
which rain Las fallen, and which has been stacked damp. A spirituous 
smell is not uncommon in stacks, which shows tliat the sugar is lost, 
and with it, probably, most of, or all the nitrogenous constituents. Such 
hay as we have mentioned last, is probably inferior in value to well 
saved oat straw. To be a good judge of hay, requires both much ex- 
perience, and the consideration of many particulars ; while the differ- 
ence in nutritive qualities between good and bad samples — frequently 
resembling each other to the eye — is very great. Old hay, that is, hay 
which is over a year old, other things being equal, is always the most 
valuable. Some chemical change takes place by which it is supposed 
to be rendered more nutritive ; and as has been already stated, horses 
prosper better upon it. The same peculiarity is found in grasses when 
used for pasture. It has been noticed, in the valley of the Kennet, Eng- 
land, that sheep might safely be fed upon, or soiled with the grass of the 
Jlrst crop of the water-meadows, but it was dangerous to do either with 
the second cvoTp of the same grass, {C.W.Juhnscn.) Prof Way analysed 
the grass of such meadows taken April 30t.h (A,) and 26ih June (B,) 
and found that in lOO parts in a green state there were contained : 

A. B. 

Water, 

Nitrogenous matter, 
Fatty matter. 
Starch, gum, sugar, (fee, 
Woody Fibre, 
Ash, 

This not only shows that the very season at which grass is cut or fed 
is a matter of importance, bub elucidates a beautiful provision of na- 
ture. In spring, growth is provided for, and heat or fat is not requisite, 
but in order to provide for the cold of winter, the later grass abounds 
in fat forming constituents, so that a provision may be laid up for the 
inclement season. 



87.58 


74.53 


3.22 


2.78 


0.81 


0.52 


3.98 


1117 


3.13 


8.76 


1.28 


2.24 



AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. l73 

392. Grasses prosper, on the great majority of soils, — not on 
all — ^but tliose containing a fair proportion of clay and loam, 
with moisture, are the most profitable both for meadow and 
grazing. 

393. A field laid down to grass for a length of time improves 
the soil for grain crops, — much if pastured, partially if mowed. 

391:. The manures requisite for grasses, necessarily A'-aiy with 
the needs of the soil, which can only be ascertained by analysis ; 
but these plants peculiarly require the alkalies in the form of 
soluble silicates, the phosphates of magnesia, and lime, with 
nitrogen. Unleached wood-ashes contain the silicate of potash 
in the same proportion as straw, besides several other important 
salts, and consequently are an excellent manure for this crop. 
Barn-yard manures may also be applied with profit, but they 
are generally preferred in the shape of comjjosts. Guano, 
plaster, &c., ai-e found profitable in some localities. Salt is 
highly beneficial in some soils, — 2 to 3 bushels per acre sown 
in spring. In England, nitrate of soda (Saltpetre,) at the cost 
of $6.00 per acre, has been used with profit. If barn-yard 
manure is used, it should be hauled and evenly spread on all 
lands containing clay, soon after the hay is taken ofi" ; on sandy 
lands, in spring. In both instances, haiTOw in spring, as soon 
the ground will bear the team without poaching, and mix the 
manure into the soil, till the whole looks black. There can be 
no injuiy done by tearing up the surface grass. If the sod is 
thin, sow on a little more seed and roll. By such a dressing of 
well-saved barn-yard manure every three years, a meadow may 
be kept in high condition. Such fields should not be pastured 
in spiing, nor at any time when wet. 

395. Timothy seed, in the United States, is usually sown with 
a grain crop ; if with wheat in the foil or spring ; with oats, or 
barley in spring. Barley is decidedly the best crop for the pur- 
pose. The first years grass on the same field, one-half sown 
with oats, and half with barley, will show a very decided profit 



174 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

in favor of tlie latter. In laying doAvn a peimanent meadow, 
the field should be well manured, plowed deeper than usual, and 
put in good condition in every way. In clay soils, finish put- 
ting in the grain crop, and haiTow fine and evenly. Then sow 
the grass seed, and roll in, till the surface is smooth, and the clods 
entirely broken up. In such lands Timothy seed does not re- 
quire to be deeply buried, and the same applies to clover when 
sown with it. In sand, give the grain one haiTowing, sow the 
gi-ass seed, haiTow cross ways, and finish by rolling. In Great 
Britain, harrows made much lighter than the usual ones, with 
long, narrow teeth, placed rather near together, are used ex- 
pressly for jjutting in gi-asses. In some cases a " brush har- 
row" is used for the same purpose. In veiy heavy soils, it is 
recommended to roll as soon as the grain-sowing is finished, sow 
the grass on the smooth sui-fjxce, and finish with light han-owing. 

To sow evenly requires some experience. The seed is caught 
between two fingers and the thumb, instead of the whole hand, 
and the casts are more frequent than in grain-sowing. There 
are machines, fastened by a strap to the sower's neck, for the 
purpose of sowing grass and clover seeds, which do the work 
well, and cost only a small sum. Weeds are often conveyed in 
grass seeds, and none but the perfectly dean should be pur- 
chased. Such will cost more at first but will be cheapest in the 
end. The Journal of Agriculture gives a table from actual 
experiment of the proper depth at which to sow these seeds. 
Fourteen species of grasses and clover were tried, and in all 
cases those on the surface, and not more than a quarter of an 
inch in depth sprouted the best ; at 3 inches none at all ap- 
peared. In certain sandy and gravelly soils, however, grasses 
and clovers are apt to dry up in summer, if the roots are super- 
ficial. (See Patent Office Reports, 1846, p. 694.) 

396. Under some circumstances, it is beneficial to steep such 
seeds previous to sowing, to strengthen and insure the germin- 
ating powers. The best mode of doing this, is to spread the 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. iVS 

seeds on the barn floor, and shower over them gi-adually, with 
frequent turnings, as much water, at a time, as they can absorb 
without any running oflF. Do this for a whole day, at sej^arate 
intervals, until they are thoroughly saturated. At night, make 
them up into a heap and cover with cloths so as to raise the 
temperature. Before sowing, spread out on a cloth to dry in 
the sun for a short time, so that they can be easily separated. 
Old or damaged seeds, incapable of germinating, are sometimes 
sold. This may be discovered by placing a piece of flannel at 
the bottom of a common saiicer, saturating it with water, and 
sowing a few seeds on it. Keep in a warm place, renewing the 
water as it evaporates, and in three or four days all the seeds 
capable of germinating, will sprout. The same test may be 
applied to any kind of seed. 

In Maine, the grain intended to be sown, is wet or soaked, the 
grass seed is mixed with the grain in this wet state, to which it 
readily adheres, and in this manner it is sown. We only men- 
tion this mode to condemn it ; as either the grain must be 
buried too shallow, or the grass too deeply ; in growing, the two 
will be apt to interfere ; and the plants will be uneven. 

397. These niles, with slight modifications which must be 
learnt from experience, will apply to all species of grasses. The 
small and light seeds are usually sold by the pound weight. 
The statutes of Michigan do not determine the weight of a 
bushel of Timothy seed, but 60 lbs. is the usual standard. 

398. A groat diversity of practice occurs as to the time when 
gi-ass should be cut for hay. So far as can be ascertained by 
theory, the period at which grasses contain the largest propor- 
tion of nuti'itive matter is just previous to flowering, and while 
in blossom ; but in practice, some species appear to be as good 
if not better when the seed is ripe. The question can only be 
determined by many carefully conducted experiments ; and we 
trust that a matter of such great importance will not be allowed 
to remain in its present uncertain condition. Timothy cut 



176 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

wliile in blossom, makes dusty hay, owing to the pollen ; wliich 
is unpleasant, if not injurious to stabled animals. 

Late experiments, very carefully made in Scotland, show that Italian 
and Perennial Rye grass, mixed bay, and clover, cut before flowering 
(<z,) when in flower {b,) and when ripe (c,) fatten in unlike proportion, 
80 as to be valued at (a,) 6d. per stone of 28 lbs., (6,) at5!^d., and (c,) 
at 5d. At the same time it was found that good oat straw was just as 
valuable as hay for fattening beef animals, when roots, oil-cake, <fec., 
were given as the main food. 

399. The more simple the operation of hay-making the better. 
The following plan has been followed for many years with 
complete success, the grass being pure Timothy, and Timothy, 
Red Clover, and June Grass mixed. If the meadows are ex- 
tensive, begin mowing when first the heads appear. Do not cut 
till the dew is nearly or quite risen, leave till afternoon in 
swathe, rake into windrows with horse rake, and form into light 
cocks, each containing about one hundred pounds of dry hay ; 
next morning, as soon as the dew is risen, throw these cocks 
open ; and leave them so for a couple of hours, and then haul 
into sheds. Let a man stand with a bucket of salt, and scatter 
about half a handful on each large fork-full as it is packed 
away; using about an ordinary bucket-fidl of salt to a ton of 
hay. This is all that is necessary. The hay will come out in 
the winter nearly as soft and green as when put by ; and a^U 
be eaten with avidity by the stock. If it is intended to be 
stacked, it had better stand the second day in cock, and be 
treated in the same manner as above on the third. If the 
grass has flowered, even this labor is not necessary. It may be 
cut in the moniing, raked into windrows in the afternoon, and 
immediately hauled into sheds. By this rapid process, nothing 
is lost ; the wax, the nitrogen, and the salts are saved ; much 
labor is saved ; and risk from rain and dew is not incurred ; while 
the common salt prevents fermentation, souring, and the growth 
of the fungus so common on badly made hay, usually known as 
mould or mustiness, and which is so injurious to horses* 

•The foUowiug pt^s^ge coatains much valuable practical matter, based on true 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 177 

" Bad hay \7ill change a horse's appearance in two days, even with an 
tinlimited quantity of oats. The kidneys are excited by it to extraor- 
dinary activity. The urine, which in this disease is always perfectly 
transparent, a discharged very frequently and in copious profusion. 
The horse soon becomes hide-bound, emaciated, and feeble. His thirst 
is excessive. He never refuses water, and he drinks as if he would never 
give over. The disease does not produce death, but it renders the horse 
useless, and ruins the constitution. Musty hay is said " to be bad for 
the wind," and it is certainly so for every part of the body." {Stephens.) 

400. Grass is cut with (a,) a scythe, or (b,) a mowing ma- 
chine. It is raked with (c,) a hand-rake, or (d,) a horse rake, 
of which there are several kinds. It is pitched with a hay- 
fork, for which purpose the two-tined is generally preferred. 
The mowing-machine and the best horse-rake will cut and rake 
about 12 to 16 acres a day, under favorable circumstances, with 
four horses and two men. The same work to be done by hand 
would require about 18 men. 

401. It is laid down as a principle, which appears to be 
strictly true, that hay can scarcely be injured by its own juices 
alone, but if wet with rain or heavy dews it requires very care- 
ful drying before being put away. 

402. In hauling, three and sometimes four men are required. 

principles. "Damp hay, or even grass, may be stacked with layers of straw, or of 
old hoy, sprinkled with salt to prevent heating, and to draw out the juice from the 
damp grass, which is then absorbed by the straw." [Rev. A. Huztable, an eminent 
English Agriculturist, has long practiced this mode of putting hay by; and he fine's 
that by so doing, not only does the gross require but little drying, but it so imparts 
its juices to the straw, as to render the latter still more valuable. The two are 
placed in layers, and in use are cut through, and mixed.] " Mouldy hay, put together 
with salt, from 8 lbs. to 25 lbs. per ton, was better reUshcd by cattle, and did them 
more good than sound hay stacked without salt ; of which many instances are re- 
corded. (Johnson on salt, p. 105.) In Germany they even cure fresh cut grass by 
pitting with salt, 1 lb. to tbe 112 lbs.; it comes out quite a paste, and is said to go 
further as food than the same quantity of grass made into hay. 'When hay is packed 
with straw, the latter may vary from one-eighth to one-quarter, and the salt from 
1 lb. to 3 Ibi. per cwt., according to the dampness of the new hay. If old dry hay 
is used instead of straw, it must be in larger proportion because less absorbent. 
And where neither can b« had, chaff might do, or even bran if salted eoougli to pre- 
Teot fermentation." farmer's Migaiint, vol. ir , (1853) p. 280. 

12 



178 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

One stands on the wagon, one or two pitcli to him, and one 
i-akes the ground. It is not often, however, that the man on 
the wagon is able to stow it away as rapidly as two can pitch to 
him. Where hands are scarce, the raker is sometimes dis- 
pensed with, the hay-rake being run over the field w]ten all is 
hauled. In changeable weather, no more should be cut in a 
day than can be well taken care ®f before night. 

403. If sheds are used, the stowing away is very simple; 
one man standing on the load pitching, one inside catching and 
spreading the hay, and one salting and treading down. If 
stacked, the man on the stack requires experience, which can 
scarcely be taught by writing, so as to carry it up straight, of 
proper size and weight all round. An ill-made stack is very 
apt to fall over, or to let the wet into crevices and cracks. How- 
ever, stacking is very deficient in economy. More or less hay 
is inevitably spoilt ; and in winter it has either to be carried to 
to the barn to be consumed, exposing the remainder to 
wet, or the cattle, while feeding, are exposed to all vicissitudes of 
weather, waste much, and manure the ground, immediately 
around the stack, inordinately. It is calculated that a good 
shed, adapted for hay above, and for stock beneath, with proper 
racks, pays its own cost in three seasons, in saving alone. 

404. There is a mode of increasing the yield of grass called 
Gurneyism, from its discoverer, the Hon. G. Guniey, of Corn- 
wall, England. It consists of covering the field with \\ tons 
to the acre of straw, letting this lie for some time, and then 
raking it off. The grass is then cut or grazed, and the straw 
again returned. The principle on which this acts is unknown, 
but every one must have observed that grass covered with 
Ktraw, or a bush grows more rapidly than when not covered. 
This mode does not appear to have been much used in Eng- 
land, and probably not at all in America. (See Patent Office 
Beports,\UQ,^. 254,; 

405. Irrigation of meadows is of high antiquity; and 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. l70 

greatly increases the yield. It requires tbe land to lie peculiarly 
in connection with running water, and a complex and artistic 
series of ditches and draining is necessary. It is too extensive 
a subject to enter upon in this work, though there are many 
positions in the United States where it may be favorably em- 
ployed. 

406. Good old hay is long and large, hard and tough ; color inclininpj 
to green rather than lo white, has a sweet taste and fragrant smel!, and 
when infused in hot water produces a rich, dark-colored tea. In damp 
•weather good hay absorbs moisture, and becomes heavier, "A truss" 
of good old hay weighs 56 lbs. (Stephens.) The following rule is 
given to find the weight of hay in bulk, but we have not tested it. It 
necessaiily varies with circumstauces. old hay weighing heavier per 
square foot than new ; and ripe hay heavier than if cut before blossom- 
ing. 

" Multiply the length, breadth, and height into each other, and if the 
hay is somewhat settled, ten solid yards will make a ton. Clover will 
require 11 to 12 such yards." 

A peculiar mode of renovating worn out meadows has been employed 
of late years in Massachusetts. At the t-nd of August or begining of 
September, the grass land is carefully and neatly plowed and rolled 
down. Fifteen to twenty loads of compost are next spread to the acre, 
and harrowed both ways. The grass seed is then sown and coveied 
with a brush harrow, and is ready to cut the next summer, though per- 
haps a little later. The seed must be applied liberally, say three to 
four pecks per acre. ( Trans, of Acjricul. SocUiiet of Man., 1 852, p. 769. ) 

There are various other modes of renovating worn out m( adows when 
it is not convenient to ])low them, for which see The Farmer's Compan- 
ion and Horticultural Gazette, vol. ii, (1853,) p. 20. 

" In forming mixtures of grass seeds, every ttiil should be supplied 
with its appropriate mixture, both as rcgans succession and qualities j 
and as the permament ones requiie lime to come to maturity, some of 
the more short lived should be introduced that there may be a crop 
from the begining, and also that there should be as great a variety a« 
possible. The grasses thrive permamcntly only whin mixed, some 
forming herbage in the spring and autumn, and a few throughout the 
warmer months ; if they did not closely succeed each other, weeds would 
♦ioon appear." 

The following tabic, arranged by one of the large English Seed 



ISO 



AGKICtTLTXTRAL TEXT-BOOE* 



Dealers, may prove practically valuable. This assortment of grasses, 
&c., is recommended as forming peculiarly excellent pasture. It were 
well if our American grainsandgrasses were tabulated in the same way. 
T!ie number of seeds in an ounce are found by counting the number 
in a grain weight. The prices are given in English sterling, 5 shillings 
being rather more than one dollar — one penny to two cents. 





Price of seed in 


Average 


Average number 


Scientific names- 


London. 


weight. 


of seeds in one 




per bus. 


1 per lb. 


per bush 


ounce. 




8. d. 


8. d. 


lbs. 




Lolium italicuni. 


6.0 r 


0.6 


15 


27.000 


Dactylis glomerata, 


4.0 ., 




UH 


40.000 


Trifolium prelense. 




0.6 


64 


16,000 


Trifolium pratense peronne, - 




0.7 


64 


16.000 


Alopecurus pratensis, 


5.0 


0.8 


5i.< 


76.ooa 


Festuca pratensis, • 


6.0 


0.6 


13 


26,000 


duriuscula, 


Si.O 


0.6 


9y. 


39,000 


Poa nemoralis sempervirens, - 




1.6 


i5'4 


133,000 


Lotus corniculatus, 




6.0 


62 


28.000 


Achillea Millefolium, - 




2.9 


29K 


200.000 


Lolium perenne, 


5.e 


0.3 


24 


14,850 


Trifolium repens, - 




0.6 


65 


32,000 



CHAPTER XIV. 



€LOVER (Trifolium,) AND OTHER 
FORAGE PLANTS. 

407. Next to the Grasses, tte Clovers are the most vakiable 
as fodder plants. They belong to an entirely different botani- 
cal family, that of the Leguminosce, or Pulse Family, and are 
known by the generic name Trifolium from tree, and foli- 
um, a leaf. Thence they are frequently called in English Tre- 
foils; the leaves mostly presenting three lobes. Eight distinct 
species are found in the North United States ; others again in 
the Southern States and California; and others in Europe. 
More than 160 species in all are enumerated by botanists. 
Nine species are cultivated in Great Britain ; usually, only two 
in the Northern States of America. The following are the 
the most imix)i'tant : 

(a,) Trifolium pratense, Annual or Biennial Red Clover.* 

(b,) " pratense perenne, Perennial Red Clover, Cow 









grass.* 


(c,) 


u 


repens. 


Dutch or English "WTiite Clover. 


w 


u 


repens, 


American White Clover.* 


M 


i( 


hybridum^ 


Hybrid or Alsyke Clover. 


r/j 


u 


minus. 


Lesser Yellow Trefoil, 


(9.) 


u 


procumben3, 


Low Hop Trefoil. 


w 


<( 


medium, 


Cow or Marl Grass, Southern 



'Those marked * are either uativei of America, or extcnsiTely naturalized. 



3 8^2 AGKICULTUBAL TEXT-BOOK. 









Clover, (?)* 


a) 


u 


incarnatum, 


Crimson Clover. 


(h) 


u 


alexandrinum, 


Egyptian Clover. 


(h) 


u 


arvense, 


Rabbit-foot Clover.* 


GO 


(( 


rejiexum, 


ButFalo Clover.* 


On,) 


u 


agrarium, 


Hop Clover,* 



Of tbe above, 4 are " Red" Clovers; 3 are "White;" 3 arc "Yellow;" 
and the rest varying. (6,) (//,) and (/,) are in common use with uf# 
the latter chiefly in the Western States where it is indigenous. We 
Lave distinguished between the " Dutcli" and "American" White 
Clovers, which Botanists do not usually do, but having grown them 
side by side, we find them essentially different in habit; the first (c,) is a 
tall, strong growing plant, well adapted for meadows, standing frequent- 
ly, when supported, 18 inches high; while the latter (</,) is short, ad- 
hering to the ground, and wholly unfit for meadows. If one is only a 
variety of the other, which appears probable, they are, economically, 
very distinct. The Dutch or English White Clover would be a valu- 
able addition to our plants of this family. Attempts have been lately 
made to introduce into America the Alsylce Clover, (e,) and the seed 
has been distributed by the Patent Office. It is a native of the South 
of Europe, but has long been cultivated in Sweden and Germany, where 
it is very highly esteemed, and latterly in Great Britain. It is de- 
scribed as peculiarly luxuriant. The root is fibrous, and the heads 
globular, Tlie stems are recumbent, but they do not root in the soil ; 
"in short it may be described as a giant white clover, with flesh colored 
flowers." It yields two mowings annually. It will grow luxuriantly 
on poor, bare, obdurate clays as well as on light sands. It ripens its 
seed much earlier, and continues io vigor much longer than the Red 
Clovers. Wlien once rooted it will remain for a great many years in 
full vigor, and produce annually a great quantity of herbage of excel- 
lent quality. A heavier crop of wheat is invariably produced after this 
than after other clover. The quantity of seed requisite is from 10 to 15 
pounds per acre, while it will yield orer two cwt. on the same area. It 
does not sufier from the severest frosts ; it will flourish on barren land 
where few grasses will grow at all ; and with it the soil never becomes 
"clover sick." {Dr. Lindley.) Such is its European reputation, and 
it is certainly worth trying extensively in this country. The seed in 
London is worth two shillings sterling — 50 cents — per pound ; and at 
that price might become with ua an article of export. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 183 

The Crimson Clover (t.) is a native of the Southern and Central 
parts of Europe. It is an annual, and must be sown in autumn that it 
may flower and arrive at maturity in the following season. It has lat- 
terly attracted much attention in England. The Egyptian clover (_;,) 
is also an annual. The other species are small, and unfit to be sown 
alone, but are commonly mixed by the English with grasses, for which 
purposes they are well adapted as varying the food, and filling up blank 
spaces. They would be profitable with ua in permanent pastures.* 

408. Red Clover prefers clayey soils; it generally thrives in 
good wheat lands ; in light and sandy ground it gets bare and 
frosted. Dui-ing its early growth it always requires the shelter of 
some other plant. It is apt to bo lifted out of the ground and 
destroyed by frost in winter, if eaten bare, and not covered by 
snow. White Clover grows spontaneously in most clay soils, 
such as are known as " heavy timbered lands ;" appearing ag 
soon as the forest is removed. For sheep-pasture nothing can 
surpass it; but it is usually rather short for larger stock. It 
has a peculiar effect on horses in producing severe salivation 
when in blossom, but without apparently injuring the health or 
strength : — why, does not appear to be ascertained. This, we 
believe, has not been observed in the European variety. 

409. The Red species are extensively grown throughout the 
Northern United States, chiefly, however, in the moderate cli- 
mates. In wheat-culture, they are greatly depended upon as a 
sort of manure. 



•The difference between the annual Red Clover (o,)J and" Cow Grass (A,) is thus 
given by a late English writer. (Farmer's Magazine, vol. iii., 1853, p. 421.) ''The 
first has a somewhat spindle shaped root, with but few fibres, grows more upright, 
has fewer hairs on the stem and leaves, thrives luxuriantly, p.tem generally hollow or 
pipcy, broad leaves, and reddish-purple flowers; the latter has a somewhat creeping 
root, the stem grows zigzag and less globular than the other, and is soli<l or pithy, 
with a narrow leaf which, with the flowers, has a paler hue ; it comes into flower 
from twelve to fourteen dsys later than the first." We do not remember ever meet- 
ing with the first in our Western States, where we are inclined to believe that our 
"large" species is the Bvffalo Clovtr. It is, however, very difficult to distinguish the 
various species of this family. The California Clovers are spoken of as far surp«ssir|; 
any we at present cultivate in the Eastern portion of the continent. 



I. 


n. 


47.53 


47.19 


4.69 


5.33 


57.96 


37.66 


2.06 


2.06 


7.76 


7.76 



184 AGRICULTURAL TBXT-BOOK. 

410. Ultimate axaltsis of Red Clover (a?) (JBoussingault,) one part 
of clover liay after complete desiccation weighed 0.790 : one part of 
dried hay left, 0.078 of ash. 

Carbon, 

Hydrogen, - - - 

Oxygen, 

Nitrogen, - - - 

Ash, 

100.00 100.00 

A surface of 120 square yards gave 44 lbs. roots, -weighed 
after being thoroughly dried in the sun ; when pulverized after 
drying in the stove the weight was reduced to 37 lbs. When 
perfectly dry one acre would furnish 1428 lbs. of residue. 
Composed as follows : 

Carbon, ... 43.4 per cent. 

Hydrogen, - ■ 5.3 " 

Oxygen, ... 36.9 " 

Nitrogen, - - 1.8 " 

Salts and earth, - « 12.6 " 

lOO.UO 

The same writer shows the amount of clover hay obtained 
from, and clover roots left in the soil of one acre with the ele- 
mentary matter of the latter, which forms manure when plowed 
under, as follows : 

Produce of hay per acre in 1839, • 

do dried at 212 op., 
Roots dried in the sun, per acre, » 

do do 31110="?., 

These roots consisted of, per acre, 
Carbon, ... 

Hydrogen, - - - 

Oxygen, . . - 

Nitrogen, - - - ^ 

Salts and earth, . . - 

1417 lbs. 



2292 lbs. 


1810 lbs. 


1833 lbs. 


1418 lbs. 


615 lbs. 


75 lbs. 


523 lbs. 


26 lbs. 


178 lbs. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 185 

Thus returning, for the use of the next crop, only 204 lbs. of nitro- 
gen and salts, per acre. 

411. Prof. "Way finds 100 parts of the following clovers in 
their fresh state, to contain of water (A,) and flesh forming 
principles (B.) 

A. B. 

Crimson clover, (»,) - - 82.14 2.96 

Red clover, (a,) - - 81.06 4.27 

Cow grass, (A,) - - 74.10 6.30 

Sainfoin, - - - 76.64 4.33 

And Dr. Anderson, (Trans. Highland Agricul. Society^ 1 853, 
p. 509,) gives the amount of albuminous or flesh forming mat- 
ters in the second crop of clover hay at 13.52 per cent. 

Scbwertz rectons that 2 cwt. (=224 lbs.) of green clover yield 48 lbs 
of hay. The relation of green to dry fodder varies with the ase of the 
plant, and the meteorogical circumstances under which it has grown. 
At Bechelbronn 1 ton ef clover in flower (second year,) afforded in 
hay 7 cwt.; 1 ton of clover in flower (first year,) afforded in hay 4 cwt. 
2 qurs. 24 lbs. The average produce of this fodder reduced to hay was 
41 cwt. (=112 lbs. per cwt.) 3 qurs. per acre. (Bouasingault.) 

412. Approximate composition of the green stems of Red 
Clover (A,) and White Clover (B.) (Johnston.) 

Water, ... 

Starch, • • 

Woody Fibre, 

Sugar, - • 

Albumen, - . « 

Extractive matter and gum, 
Phosphate of Lime, 
Wax and Resin, 

413. Inorganic analysis of Red Clover; Broad Clover (A,) 
White Clover (B,) and Cow Grass, (T. Medium) (C.) 



A. 


B. 


76.0 


80.0 


1.4 


1.0 


13.9 


11.5 


3.1 


1.5 


2.0 


1.5 


3.5 


3.4 


1.0 


0.8 


0.1 


0.2 



186 



AGRICULTURAL TBXT-BOOK. 





Red Clover. 


A. 


B. 


C. 




Boussin- 
gault. 


Way. 


Liebig;. 




Way. 




Cirbonic acid, - 


25.0 16.9 




23.47 


18.0 


25.51 


Sulphuric acid. 


2.5 


4.2 


1.1 


1.85 


7.2 


1.08 


Phosphoric acid, - 


6.3 


6.3 


4.1 


6.71 


11.5 


6.41 


Chlorine, ichloride of sodi'm 


2.6 


2.4 


4.7 




5.0 




Lime, 


24.6 


35.4 


21.9 


22,62 


26.4 


24.5*5 


Magnesia, 


6.3 


11.2 


8.3 


4.08 


8.2 


4.52 


Potash, 


26.6 


14.9 


16.1 


36.45 


143 


34.72 


Soda, - 


0.5 


1.4 


40.7 




3.7 




Silica, 


S.3 


3.3 


2.6 


0.59 


.^7 


063 


Oxide of iron. &c.. 


0.3 


1.0 


0.5. 




2.0 




Chloride of potansiura, - 




3.0 










Dried ash. 








OM 




7.97 



According to Spiengel, 100,000 parts of White clover in a fresh state 
contain 1735 parts of inorgauic matter. 

414. The following is^ a late comparative analysis of White 
clover (A,) Trefoil (B,) Red clover (g,) (C,) and Tares (D,) all 
grown on the same land in a natural condition, on the farm of 
the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. (Dr. 
Voelcker.) 



Water, 

Nitrogenized matter capable of 
producing flesh, 

Substances free from nitrogen ca- 
pable of sustaining respiration. 

Inorganic substances. 



83.65 
4.52 

10.26 
1.57 



B. 



77.670 
4.481 

15.949 
2.000 



80.640 
3.606 

13.784 
1.970 



D. 



82.16 
3.56 

12.74 
1.54 



By " Tre/oii"{the context leads us to suppose that Hop clover (T. procumbeus,) (g 
is meant, but as the writer neglects to give the botanical name we cannot be sure. 

415. The following tables, show the difference of the water 
and inorganic constituents of Red and White Clover hay, on dif- 
ferent soils. ( Way.) 





Red Clover. 


White Cliiver. 




Silicious 
tiand. 


Clay. 


Silic-ious 
Sand. 


Clay. 


Water, 

Ash, 

Ash calculated on the dry, 


13.97 
6.77 
7.87 


12.20 

7.12 
8.11 


12.60 

7.70 
8.81 


12.00 
7.61 
8.65 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



187 



Composition of 100 parts of ash of Red and White Clover 
hay. ( Way.) 





Red Clover. 


White Clover. 




Silicious 
Sand. 


Clay. 


Silicious 
Saud. 


Clay. 


Silica, 


4.03 


2.66 


4.63 


2.74 


Phosphoric acid, - 


6.82 


6.88 


10.93 


12.12 


Sulphuric acid, 


3.91 


4.46 


7.05 


7.38 


Carbonic acid. 


12.92 


20.94 


18.64 


17.41 


Lime, 


35.02 


35.76 


26.32 


26.51 


Magnesia, 


11.91 


10.53 


7.46 


8.83 


Peroxide of iron, 


0.98 


0.95 


1.17 


2.76 


Potash, 


18.44 


11.30 


15.17 


13.50 


Soda, 


2.79 




3.03 


4.41 


Chloride of sodium, 


4.13 


0.58 


5.56 


4.32 


Chloride of potassium, - 




5.92 







416. Mineral matters contained in a ton of Red (A,) and 
White Clover (B,) hay. (In pounds and tenths.) ( Way.) 

A. 



Silica, 

Phosphoric acid, 

Sulphuric acid, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Peroxide of ii'on, - 

Potash, 

Soda, 

Chloride of sodium, 

Chloride of potassium, 



lbs. 
5.2 

10.0 
6.6 

55.6 

17.7 
1.5 

23.2 
2.2 
3.7 
4.7 



B. 

lbs. 

6.3 
19.9 
12.4 
45.5 
14.0 

3.4 
24.7 

6.4 

8.5 



128.4 141.1 
417. As will be seen by these various analyses, the clovers 
are all peculiarly nutritious, containing everything that can be 
wanted for the growth and sustenance of an animal. The flesh 
and fat-forming constituents are large, and phosphate of lime, 
for the formation of bone predominates. The long tap-roots 
force them away deeply into the subsoil, the fibrous roots col- 
lect nutriment from the surface, and the large fleshy leaves, as 



188 ACtaiCULTTJRAL TEXT-BOOK. 

in all leguminous plants, are capable of absorbing such constit- 
uents as tbe air can afford. At tbe same time, if cut as hay, 
and carried off the ground, the clovers remove a comparatively 
large amount of valuable materials from the soil, and it is only 
owing to the fact that much of the material is collected in the 
fiubsoil, below the usual depth of the plow, and the roots of the 
cereals, that it does not become a scourging crop. As it is, it 
returns to the surface of the soil that which it has gathered from 
the subsoil, and which, under the ordinary system of cultiva- 
tion would not have become available. Under a system of 
thorough-draining^ which allows the roots of all plants to go to 
a great depth, many of the supposed advantages of clover as a 
manure would be lost. 

418. From these analyses, also, we learn what manures are 
likely to be peculiarly advantageous ; viz, such as contain nitro- 
gen, — guano, barn-yard dung, urine, <fec. ; and such as contain 
the inorganic constituents — lime ; phosphoric acid, in the shape 
of ground bones ; sulphuric acid, iu the shape of Plaster ; Pot- 
ash, as wood ashes; and soda, as common salt. Unless land 
contains a notable proportion of aU these, Clover cannot prosper 
upon it. 

419. Clover is always sown with some grain crops, and usu- 
ally in the spring, as hard frosts are apt to injure the young 
plants. If with fall wheat, the seed is frequently sown upon the 
last snow in the spring, the covering which it receives from 
absorption being sufficient, or it may be harrowed and rolled. 
If sown with spring grain it should be treated as is recom- 
mended for grasses. The quantity of seed requisite, when 
unmixed, is from 10 to 18 lbs., according to the character, 
condition, and richness of the soil. Some persons steep the 
seed for twenty-four hours and roU it in plaster. 

420. If intended for hay, it should be cut immediately after 
blossoming, and before the seed begins to form. The same 



AaRICOXTURAL TBXT'BO©K. 189 

nile applies to the second crop. Seed is saved only from the 
second crop ; and may be cut in the usual manner and thrashed^ 
or the heads are pulled off by an implement for the purpose, and 
the hay left as pasture. Before thrashing, the seed should be 
allowed to become perfectly dry. The produce varies from 
2 J- to 6 bushels per acre, when cleaned. Cleaning the seed for 
market, requires a machine for the purpose worked by horse- 
power. In consequence, many farmers sow it mixed with the 
chaff, in which case they must judge as well as they can of the 
quantity. 

Clover seed should be large, full, glossy, and of bright orange yellow 
and bold purple mixed ; when handled it has an oily feeL Damaged 
seed is said to be frequently dried and polished in England for sale, but 
this cau generally be detected by the rougher feel, and the duller ap- 
peiirance ; and still better by sprotJtinf* it as directed for the grasses. 
The Statute weight in Michigan is 60 lbs. to the bushel, but the best 
eeed will weigh as much as 64 lbs. or over. At 64 lbs. to the Imperial 
Bushel, 2000 grains weigh one drachm. {Stephens.) The seed of White 
Clover is very small, of a rich golden yellow color, weighing 65 lbs. to 
the bushel, and affording 4000 grains to a drachm weight. {Stephens.') 
New seeds are the best, the germinating power failing the second year. 
Large quantities of the seed of Red Clover are annually exported to 
Europe, 

421. In making clover bay, great care must be taken that 
the leaf is not so scorched and dried up as to break into pow- 
der ; which too often happens, to the great injury of the hay. 
This may be avoided by the following process. While mow- 
ing, have men to follow, and put every swathe into small cocks, 
at about a rod distance. On the second day, or if the weather 
is damp, not till the third, turn over one of those small cocks, 
and place two more upon it, laying the greenest part nicely on 
the top so as to shed rain ; then let it remain several days. It 
becomes a little heated, and the moisture all evaporates through 
the cock. Before hauling in, open the cocks, and air them for 
an hour previous. By loading and unloading it receives air 
enough to be thoroughly cured, if sufficiently sweated in the cock/ 



190 AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 

It remains green, with all the leaves upon the hay, just as it 
came from the scythe. (A. Y. Moore.) The same may be 
accomplished more rapidly, though perhaps not quite as per- 
fectly, by allowing the clover to lie in swathe just long enough 
to wilt, and be warmed through. Then put in small cocks, and 
leave two days, if the weather is dry and hot, longer if cloudy 
or damp ; air before hauling, and salt as directed for grass-hay. 
We have followed this plan for many years with great success. 
The clover is not quite dry when put in the shed, but the salt 
prevents any injury. We prefer it to be damp enough to melt 
the salt, and partially heat, 

422. In the United States clover appears to be free from any 
peculiar enemies or diseases. In Europe it suffers from sev- 
eral. 

In some of the Eastern States, a caterpillar has been found in large 
numbers spinning its webs over the clover, but it does not appear to be 
very injurious, nor is the species accurately determined. (Harria* 
2Veatise, 2ud ed. p. 35i.J 

But in both continents, the land sometimes fails to produce 
clover when sown, a condition known by the name of Clover 
Sickness. While Agricultural Chemistry was unstudied, this 
peculiarity was the cause of much wonder and many disputes. 
It is now well known to be owing to the deficiency of the soil 
in one or more of the inorganic constituents requisite for clover; 
and can be cured by special manures ; by sowing it at longer 
intervals ; or by using a different rotation of crops. To this 
cause may also be attributed the dying out of clover after hav- 
ing partially attained its growth, which sometimes occurs in 
over-cropped wheat lands. Seed still retaining its chaff, or out- 
ward covering, is supposed to be less subject to failure than 
when clean, which is probably true. Where Red Clover is apt 
to be destroyed in winter, by the frost raising the roots out of 
the ground, it may be partially or wholly prevented either by 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 191 

leaving the aftergrowth uneaten, or by spreading straw heavily 
over the sod to be left all winter, and then raked off. 

423. Besides the true Clovers or Trefoils, several other plants closely 
resembling them are more or less used, in Great Britain, to mix with 
grass seeds. Two of thera are natives of the United States — (a.) 
Sweet Clover, or Yellov? Melilot (Melilotus officinalis,) and (b,) White 
Melilot (J/. /eawcan^Aa,) but the most important of this genus is (c,) 
the Bokhara Clover, (if. leucantha major,) a biennial. It stands the 
winters in Scotland, and probably would in our middle States. Two 
species of the Bird's-foot Trefoil are also used in England. (Lotus 
eorniculatus, and L. major.) Besides these, the following might bo 
profitably introduced among us. (d,) Burnet, {Poterium Sangidsorba.) 

This is frequently grown in gardens as an herb ; and we find it quite 
hardy in damp loam on the Detroit River, though it naturally belongs 
to dry and calcareous soils. It is one of the first plants to become 
green in spring. It enters largely into old English meadows and pas- 
tures, and from its peculiar bitter and aromatic flavor, would probably 
be beneficial for sheep in miasmatic climate?. (For picture and de- 
scription, see Patent Office Report, 1847.) («,) Yarrow or Milfoil, 
( Achillea Millefolium) — a native of the United States. It is closely 
eaten by pasturing animals, and has long been cultivated in Great Bri- 
tain along with other herbage plants. (/,) Ribwort, or Plantain. 
( Planiago lanceolata.) According to Prof. Gray, this is extensively 
naturalized in the Eastern States. Cattle greedily eat our common 
Plantain, (P. Major,) a well-known wted around houses. 

424. LucERN (Medicago saliva,) together with the next 
mentioned, are extensively cultivated as fodder plants in some 
parts of Europe, but are of little practical interest, at present, 
in the United States. This is a perennial, grows a foot and a 
half to two feet high, and flowers in June and July. It requires 
a deep light soil, with an open subsoil. It is sown either broad- 
cast, or in rows, and cultivated with the hoe and cultivator, 
which process must be continued for at least three years ; till 
which period it does not arrive at its full growth. When sown 
broadcast, it has also to be kept clean with the hoe, like turnips. 
There are two species, both of which have become naturalized 
in the Eastern States. 



192 AGRICULTrRAL TEXT-BOOK. 

425. Sainfoin ( Onohrychis saliva,) — (from the Frencli 
sain, healthy — -foin hay) — is, likewise, a perennial, but belongs 
almost exclusively to the chalk and Hme formations and light 
sands. It is on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages of its 
cultivation are observed. 

It may be cultivated like clover, or grown in rows Hke the 
last. It is used either as hay, for soiling, or pasture. It con- 
tains 76.64 per cent of water, and 4.32 flesh-forming princi- 
ples, being slightly more nutritious than Red Clover. ( Way.) 

Boussingault (See Rural Economy, chap, vi., p. 321, New York ed.,) 
found this crop to vary, per acre : 

Dry herb, - - 2068 lbs. to 5462 lbs. 

Seed, . - . 66 lbs. to 582 Iba. 

Weight of total crop, - 21 34 lbs. to 6044 lbs. 

Plaster ha<» as remarkable an effect upon it as on clover. 

426. Aualysesof Lucern {Sprengel) (A,) and Sainfoin ( Way) (B): 

A. B. 

Organic matter, - - 89.6 - 93.7 

Ash, ... . 10.3 - . 6.36 

Inorganic analyses of the above, (Liebig and Way.) 

A. B. 

Sand and Silica, . - 2.3 - 35 

Potash, - . . 17.3 • - 31.9 

Soda, - - 49 - 

Lime, ... 28.5 - - 24.3 

Magnesia, - « 6.7 ♦ 5.0 

Oxide of iron, - - 0.4 - - 0.6 

Chloride of sodium, - - 2.3 - 0.8 

Phosphoric acid, . - 6.6 - - 9.4 

Sulphuric acid, - - 1.0-3.3 

Carbonic acid, - - 29.0 - - 15.2 

Chloride of potassium, - - 6.2 

427. Chicory ( C ichor ium Intyhus,) also called " Succory," 
is a native of England, but it has become naturalized in the 
Atlantic States. It is recommended as a fodder plant, and the 
root is extensively used in Europe to mix with, or as a substi- 
tute for, coflFee. The rich aromatic bitter of the French coflee 
is chiefly owing to this. In Italy it is made into hay; in 



AGRICULTXTRAI, TEXT-BOOK. 193 

France it is cultivated extensively for forage, and enters into 
the rejTular rotations of the fields. It is attractinor much at- 
tention at present in England. It will withstand the severest 
cold, and bear drought well, its large leaves covering the ground^ 
and the root striking deep into it. It comes very early in tho 
spring, and may be cut for soiling several times in the year. It 
is a perennial with very ornamental blue blossoms. 

428. Comparative analysia of tho dry root (A,) and fresh root (B,) 
of Chiccory. {Dr. Anderson.) 

A. B. 

Water, - - 18.01 • - 80.58 

Ash, on dry, . - 3.64 - 6.77 

Kitrogen, on dry, - 1.60 - - 1.48 

Ash on moiet substance, • - • 1.31 



429. Inorganic analysis. 
Silica, 


(Ibid.) 


I. 
3.790 - 


n. 
- 0.99 


Peroxide of iron, 




0.657 


0.81 


Lime, 




8.644 - 


- 6.09 


Magnesia, 




5.777 


3.15 


Sulphuric acid. 




13.048 - 


- 4.80 


Phosphoric acid. 




13.882 


10.02 


Potash, 




29.687 . 


- 42.60 


Chloride of potasfiium, - 




. 


1.78 


Sodn, 




7.641 . 


. 


Chloride of sodium. 




a.555 


6.83 


Band, 




3.271 - 


- 1.12 


Charcoal, 




2567 


9.90 


Carbonic acid. 




7.927 - 


• 11.40 



It seems from the abore that tlie plant has great powers of appro> 
priation or replacement of constituents. It probably is able to replace 
the potash with soda. 

430. Where this plant is grown for the sake of the root th« 
following is the English mode of cultivation. The autumn 
previous to sowing, tho land must be manured and deeply 
plowed, and if it be dry and porous, — the best for this crop — i 
harrowed before winter. About the second week in May, tho 
•oil is ridged up so as to deepen it^ and facilitate subsequent 
13 



194 AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 

hoeing, and the seed sown at the rate of 3;^ to 4 lbs. per acre 
in drills, 12 to 14 inches apart. The plants will not appear for 
a month or six weeks, and during this period care must be taken 
to keep down the weeds with the cultivator. The plants, if too 
thick, should be thinned to 5 or 6 inches. The subsequent cul- 
tivation consists in carefiU hand-hoeing. Late in October the 
roots are dug with a three-pronged fork. The leaves may be 
previously removed and fed to sheep. When taken up the 
roots are topped and tailed, then washed, and cut into shces like 
turnips, only in lengths as equal as possible. They must be 
dried, either by exposure to the sun, or in kilns, when they are 
ready for market. The usual yield is from 12 to 15 tons of 
the wet roots per acre, the latter diminishing when dried to 
about 1^ tons. The price in England varies from $50 to $150 
per ton. When used, the slices are roasted and ground like 
eoffee. The principal objection to this crop is the great difficul- 
ty with which it is afterwards eradicated, the smallest fibre left 
in the ground forming a plant. Still this may be accomplished, 
or nearly so, by hoeing. Sheep, in common with all stock, are 
very fond of the leaves, and prosper well upon them ; and a 
few acres devoted to this esculent would prove valuable for early 
and late sheep-feed, and for horses and cattle in summer. If 
80wn broadcast 12 to 14 lbs. of seed to the acre are required. 

431. WHfTK Mustard, (Sinapis alba,) has of late years 
been cultivated in England as a forage plant, but from experi- 
ments we have made with it, it does not appear to be suitable to 
this climate. The heat dwarfs it, and it is seriously injured by 
a minute black beetle, which attacks it early in spring. In 
light soils, however, it might succeed better. 

These constitute all the forage plants that ean be of interest 
in the Northern States ; except Rape which will be described 
in the next chapter. 



CHAPTER XV. 



PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, 

AND LEAVES. TURNIPS. (Brassica.) 

KOHL RABI. CABBAGE. RAPE. 

432. In Great Britain and Germany roots are grown to a 
very great extent to feed stock, and to act, indirectly, as a reno- 
vator of the soil, in rotations. It is not yet a century, since th« 
present si/stem of root culture was introduced, but it has entire- 
ly revolutionized Agriculture, and the Art could not now b« 
profitably exercised without it. This cla.'is of plants is not nu- 
merous, and they owe their beneficial eftect on the soil chieflj 
to the fact that they are not allowed to seed. If they beztr 
fieed, they cease to be "fallow crops," and in their effects bo- 
come similar to the cereals. They may be comprised in th« 
genera, (a,) Turnips, (including Cabbages;) (b,) Potatoes; 
(c,) Carrots; (d,) Parsneps; (e,) Beets; (/,) Jerusalem Arti- 
chokes; (g^) Onions; (It,) Sweet Potatoes. Still more are cuhi- 
vated as garden plants. The climate of a great portion of the 
United States is but illy adapted for tlie winter-preservation of 
several of these roots; and this fact, together with our less 
scientific and more careless mode of farming, has tended to 
discourarge their cultivation. In the older States, however, 
more attention is now being paid to this subject, and there aro 
none of the abo\e which may not be successfully and profita- 
bly cultivated in Michigan. The profit of a root crop is tw<> 
fold — direct and indirect: — direct, when we sell or so consume 
the produce in feeding animals as to realize more money than 
the production has cost us ; indirect, when our only profit is in 



196 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

the manure and the improvement of the soil for succeeding 
crops. English farmers are content to gro\y large fields of 
turnips, &c., and fatten many head of stock, merely for the ben- 
efit which the succeeding grain crops will receive. 

433. Turnips belong to the botanical family of Cabbaob, 
( Brassica,) of which the following species are cultivated in the 
United States. 

(a,) Brassica Rapa, Common Turnip. 

(b,) " Napus, Rape, or Cole. 

(c,) " Oleracea, Cabbage, 

The true Turnips again are thus divided : 
(a,) Brassica Rapa^ Common Turnip. 

(h^) " Campestris Na- 

po-brassica, Swedish Turnip. 
(c,) " Napus esculenta, Turnip-rooted Cole. 
(d,) " Oleracea Canlo- 

rapa, Turnip-stemmed Cabbage or 

Kohl-rabi. 

Of the turnips, there are very many sub-varieties originated 
by cultivation, such as round, depressed, fusiform, white, green, 
and red, each of which is supposed to possess some peculiar 
good qtialities. We shall, probably, originate in the United 
States varieties better adapted to our climate than those of Eu- 
rope. The three great divisions at present are, (a,) The Com- 
mon Turnip ; (b,) The Hybrid Turnip ; and (c,) the Swede, 
(or Ruta-Baga, a name, but rarely used by English writers.) 

434. The Common Turnip is too well known to need de- 
scription. The Hybrid (b,) has the leaves of the Common 
Turnip, and the character of Rape and of the Swede, and is 
supposed to be formed by a cross of these three. It is hardy, 
nutritious, and less apt to be injured by frost. The Swede (c,) is 
hard, yellow, containing less moisture, and keeps longer into 
spring, so that it is the last consumed. 



AGRICULTrRAL TEXT-BOOK. 197 

435. The soil best adapted to this crop contains a small 
amount of clayey matters, and is characterized by its light, 
loamy texture. Barley and Turnips usually prosper well on 
the same soil. The following are analyses made in Scotland, of 
two different specimens of good " Turnip soils," on which such 
crops had just been grown. (Dr. Anderson.) 

Insoluble eilicates, 

Soluble silica, 

Peroxide of iron. 

Alumina, » 

Lime, - . - 

Magnesia, 

Potash, - . - 

Chloride of sodium, 

Sulphuric acid, 

Phosphoric acid. 

Organic matter, 

Water, 

Chlorine, 

Nitrogen, 

These analyses, are valuable not only in this peculiar aspect, 
but as a standard whereby to compare our own soils. They had 
long been cultivated and highly manured. 

436. The meteorological conditions of the country seriously 
influence the yield of turnips. Thus Scotland and the West of 
England, with their greater amount and frequency of rain, pro- 
duce larger crops than the Eastern shores of the same country, 
(C W. Johnson;) while in most parts of the United States, 
we are obliged to sow late to escape the heat, and the roots ar<j 
very much smaller. 

437. TJltim.ato analysis of the Turnip. (Bouisingault.) 
A slice weighing 2 oz. 17 dwts. dried in the stove was reduced 
to 4 dwts. After thorough desiccation, one part of turnip weighed 
0.075, consequently the root contains 92.5 per cent of water. 
One part of dried turnip left 0.0758 of ash : 



67 89 


90.695 


0.07 


- - 0.073 


2.94 


1.933 


1.59 


. . 0.893 


0.38 


0.319 


0.13 


- - 0.279 


0.14 


0.056 


0.10 


Soda 0.043 


0.05 


- - 0.039 


0.04 


0.018 


4.66 


- - 4.996 


1.75 


1.444 




trace. 




0.1G4 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Carbon, 

Hydrogen, 

Oxygen, 

Nitrogen, 

Ash, 



I. 

42.80 
554 

42.40 
1.68 

7.58 



n. 

49.93 



5.61 

42.20 
1.68 
7.58 

438. Water (^A;) solid matter (B) and asl>(C;)— 100 parts 
in moist state — in turnips, grown in four different localities in 
bcotland. (Dr. Anderson.) 

White Globe Turnips (a,) 

do do (6.) 

do do (c,) 

Swedes, do {<!,) r 

439. Inorganic analysis of the same turnips, 
ion.) 



A. 

9318 
92.85 
94.03 
9007 



B. 

6.82 
7.15 
597 
9.91 



C. 

0.67 
78 
0.69 
057 



(Dr. Ander- 



Silica, 

Potash, 

Soda. 

Chloride of sodium, 

Lirne, 

Magnesia, 

Sulphuric acid, - 

Phosphoric acid. 

Peroxide of iron, - 



A. 


B. 


C. 




0.60 


0.18 


474G0 


44.11 


42 83 


2.655 


5.48 


13.66 


13.990 


21.99 


5.45 


8.689 


7.91 


923 


4.555 


zm 


4.97 


12.603 


9.03 


1223 


8.613 


6.81 


11.14 


1.435 


0.19 


0.31 



D. 

0.28 
4802 

3 93 

7.04 
10.67 

4.45 
12.16 
13.07 

0.38 



The proportion of nitrogen in liealthy turnips varies within 
extremely wide limits, and that without any assignable cause. 
In two of the above specimens the nitrogen was respectively 
3.81 and 2.54. By comparing the analyses of other chemists 
the nitrogen may be averaged from 1.65 to 4,31, equivalent to 
2.00 and 5.22 of Ammonia. From these facts we learn that 
this plant varies not only in its agricultural requirements but 
also greatly in its nutritive powers; and that one ton of turnips 
may be capable of forming as much flesh, as two and a half 
tons grown on a different soil. Dr. Anderson places the aver- 
age of the flesh-forming matter in turnips as low as 1.27 in 100 
parts of the fresh substance. The phosphates vary in a like 
manner. In 12 analyses of turnips of two varieties, grown on 
different soils, and with different manures, these varied from 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



199 



6.8 on clay to lV.6 on "black land;" wliile the nitrogen in th© 

fibre, and the nitrogen in the juice, equally uncertain, appear to 

bear no relative proportion to each other. 

440. Organic analysis of Swedes. (Johnston,) 

Alljumen, . . . . » 3.5 

Fat Hnd oil, .... 2.0 

Guni, Dextrine and pectine, « - - 14.9 

Susar. .... - 58.9 

Fibre and husk, - . . - • 20.3 

" The potato is characterised by containing a large propor- 
tion of starch in connection with a small quantity of albumen 
— the turnip and carrot by containing in place of the starch a 
variable proportion of sugar, and of a gelatinous gummy-like 
substance, to which the name of pectin ha.s been given. In 
the Swedish Turnip and in the carrot the pectin is usually pre- 
sent in the larger quantity." (Johnston.) The same writer 
gives the following comparative table; remarking, however, 
that " these analyses are very defective, and apply with any de- 
gree of correctness only to the specimens actually operated on.* 
They will answer, at the same time, to give a general view of 
these plants. 

Variety of Turnips. 



White. 


Swedes. 


Cabbage. 


Common 
carrot. 


Sugar 
beet. 


790 


80 


78.0 


80.0 


85.0 


7.2 


5.3 


6.0 


9.0 


3 


2.5 


3.0 


35 


1.75 


20 


8.0 


9,0 


9.0 


7.8 


10.0 


2.5 


2.0 


25 


1.1 


? 


0.5 


05 


0.5 


— 


? 


0.5 


0.2 


0.5 


oil 0.35 


— 



"Water, 

Starch and fibre, 

Gum (pectin,) 

Sui<ai-, 

Albumen, 

Salt. 

Loss, 

441. Average of water (A.) and ash (B.) in turnips grown in 

England, ( Way and Ogsden.) 



Parsnip. 

794 
6.9 
6.1 
5 5 
2.1 

? 

? 





Water. 


AlH. 


Ash Dry. 








a 

1 


Highest. 
Lowest. 


i 


i i 

t 1 




Bulb, 
Top. 


92.7 
900 


86.0 
79.0 


90.0 

85.5 


1.131 0.48 
5.G4! 1.19 


73 10 90 
1.84 18.00 


4 ()<' 
8 00 


7.30 
12 98 



200 AOBICULTUBAL TEXT-BOOK. 

The nitrogen in the tops appears to average much higher than in the 
U]b. 

442. A crop of 20 tons of bulbs or roots, and 4 tons of leave* 
of turnips, mangel wurtzel, and carrots will respectively with- 
draw from the soil of an acre as follows : — ( Way.) 







Turnips. 


H. Wurtzel. 


Carrotm. 


Phosphoric 


: acid, 


45 lbs. 


21 Ibg. 


39 lbs. 


Sulphuric : 


icid, 


50 " 


22 " 


57 " 


Lime, 




90 •• 


21 " 


197 " 


Haguesia, 




14 .. 


22 " 


29 " 


Potash, 




140 " 


133 " 


134 " 


Soda. 




33 " 


70 " 


103 " 


Chloride of sodium. 


57 " 


160" 


85 - 



429 " 449 " 664 " 

443. Pectin, or Pectic acid (GEO) (So//y) is a substance analo- 

11 8 10 

gous to gum, -which exists iu many plants, and especially in fruit. It it 
a tasteless solid, which swells up, and gelatinizes with water. It poa» 
«esses feeble acid powers, combining with babes to form peciales. Con- 
taining no nitrogen, it belongs to the heat or fat forming constituents of 
food— and in this respect appears to act as an equivalent, in food, to 
Btarch. Pectic acid has been found in every plant for which it has been 
Bought for ; but in some it usurps the chief place, as in turnips, carrots, 
beets, Jerusalem artichokes, onions, and in all kinds of fruils. It is 
also found in the stalks and leaves of herbaceous plants, in the wood and 
bark of all the trees examined, Ac. See BousvingaultRural Econ.p. 129. 
Pireira on Food and Diet. Ch. ii. $ 6. 

444. The characteristics desirable in the turnip are hardiness 
against insects and disease; rapid growth; moderate size of 
bulb ; and capability of keeping sound and fresh. Not only aro 
very large bulbs apt to be hollow, or cellular, but late examina- 
tions have shown that they contain, proportionably, less nutritivo 
matter than smaller ones : in some instances the difference was 
as high as 50 per cent. In England some varieties are found 
much more liable to disease than others ; and some retain their 
flavor and solidity longer than others. In all these respects, th« 
Swedes appear to stand preeminent. 



AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 201 

445. In Great Britain, the average pood crop varies from 1 J 
to 40 tons of bulbs " topped, tailed, and well cleaned" per acre^ 
according to soil, and meteorological locality ; v/bilo the tops of 
Swedes reach as hifjh as 1 7 tons on the same area. 

" If planted 28 inches fiora row to row, and 10 inches from turnip t» 
turnip, each turnip taking up 280 square inches, there would be 22,402 
turnips, wliich at 3 lbs. each is 30 tons, 6 lbs. per acre ; at 4 lbs. each 
turnip, 40 tons, 8 lbs. per acre." 

In New York and Pennsylvania 600 bushels per aero of th« 
common turnip are generally considered a good crop. The 
Farmers^ Cabinet, iii. 17, mentions an instance where 850 
bushels were raised to the acre. The Swedes yield one-third 
more than the common variety; of these 1200 to 1600 bushel* 
have been raised to the acre. ( Wiggins.) In Rensselaer Co., 
N. Y. a premium was given in 1848,-for a crop of the last of 
1,238^ bushels per acre. 

44G. The cost of cultivating the last named crop was as follows, th« 
quantity of land being 1 2-10 acres. 

Plowing the fall previous, . • . ^2 .Si 

do and harrowing in spring, . « « 6.5f 

Light harrowing, previous to gowing, • - 50 

Seed, ..... 7ft 

Drilling in seed at $1 per daj, • » 31 

Thinnnig, weeding and after culture, 11 daj 8, - • 8.25 

Man and horse with cultivator 3 times, - - 2.50 

14 days harvesting and securing, ... 10.50 

20 loads of manure, - - . - 13.00 

Interest on land at $150 per acre, ... 12.60 



$57.16 
1,486 bushels at 12^ cents per bushel, - • $185.7S 

Net proceeds, • - - • $128.59 

(Trans, of N. Y. Slate Agricultural Soeieiy, Vol. viii : p. 328.) 

447. The culture of this crop in Great Britain is very com- 
plex, and has, perhaps, been more thoroughly studied than anjr 



102 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

other. We must refer our readers to works especially upon the 
subject, merely laying down the following principles. 

(a,) The soil for this crop should be light, rich, thoroughly 
plowed, and pulverized. Fair crops may be raised on somo 
clay soils, but they require more labor to put them in a proper 
condition. No crop demands more thorough tillage previous 
to the sowing. 

(b,) Drilling the seed, at 20 to 24 inches, the distance of the 
rows, instead of broadcasting, saves much after labor. 

(c,) The land must be kept perfectly clean, and often stirred 
with the hoe. 

(d,) The manures requisite are those which will supply nitro- 
gen, and the peculiar inorganic constituents. Supposing the soil 
to be in a ftiir average condition, the following may be applied : 
1. Super phosphate of Hme; 2. Ground bones, in various states 
of preparation; 3. Guano; 4. Barnyard manure, or compost; 
6. Common salt; 6. Wood ashes; 7. Lime; 8. Plaster. In 
rich English soils, guano, bones, and ashes, are usually consider- 
ed sufficient. 

(e,) It is exceedingly important that the young plant should 
be rajiidly forced into the " rough leaf." Previous to this, it is 
subject to the attacks of several insects ; and its future prosperity 
appears to depend on the early rapidity of growth. 

448. In the United States, turnips are usually grown as a 
second crop in the fall, being sown in New York and Michigan 
from the end of July to the 12th of August. The Swedes re- 
quire the longest period of growth. If sown broadcast, a quart 
of seed, if by drill, a pint is sufficient. The harvesting must be 
performed before hard frosts set in. The roots are pulled by 
hand, laid on the ground, the toi)s of the two rows facing each 
other. A man follows with a bill hook, and separates the tops 
from the roots. Three men will harvest 300 bushels a day. 
The tops are taken to the barn yard for the cattle. The best 
mode of storing is in root-cellars, with straw ; but bills or pits — 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 203 

such as are used for potatoes — may be made in the field. On, 
feeding, tbe bulbs sbould be cut up. This may be done with 
a common shovel, but there are various machines for the pur- 
pose, which save much labor. 

449. Fattening cattle, averaging 900 lbs. live weight, will 
eat 150 lbs. of common turnips daily, with V lbs. of oat straw. 

450. In Europe, many diseases, such as Fingers and toes, Black crackt, 
<tc. seriuiisly injure this crop. In the United States itappears to be free 
from any geneial malady. 

451. There are several insects which are more or less injurious in thia 
country. The worst is the Black Flea-beetle (Haltica pubescens. Ill ?) 
if we do not have the true Turnip fly of Europe {H. nemorum); but 
little is yet known of this family. On a small scale, it may be driven 
off by scattering over the plants finely powdered plaster, or boiled plas- 
ter mixed with spirits of turpentine, and dried ; but the best preventa- 
tive is rapidly forcing the plant into the rough leaf. This insuct is pecu- 
liarly fond of White Mustard, which may be sown in the neighborhood. 
In Massachusetts, the caterpillar of a white butterfly (Poniia oleracea) 
devours turnip leaves. The lulus also bores into the roots, and even tha 
common Earth-worm appears, in some way, to penetrate them. 

452. If seed is required, the best roots should be selected in 
spring, set out about 2 feet apart, in good land, and hoed while 
growing. If any particular variety is required it must be kept 
far apart from any other. 

453. The seeds of turnips contain much oil. The following 
production of seed and oil is given by Boussingault. 

Swedish Turnip. Rape. Kohl Rabi. 

^^per^'acfe"''''^! I5cwt. Iqr. SSlbs. 16cwt. Sqrs. ISlbs. 13cwt.3qrs. IDlb?. 

^olf m'^ie^ 5 595.8 lbs. 641.6 lbs. 565.4 lbs. 
Oil ohtained / „„ «., „„ 

percent. 5 "*"* "*"* ^"^ 

Cake pr. cent. 62 62 61 

454. KoiiL Rabi, Turnip stemmed Cabbage, is chiefly culti- 
vated in Germany, where it is eaten both by man and animals. 
It is perfectly hardy on the Detroit river, is subject to few casu- 
alities, and is little affected by frost. It may be grown in the 



204 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Beed-bed and then transplanted, like a cabbage, or drilled, and 
thinned out, and cultivated as turnips are. It should be sown 
as early in spring as the temperature will permit. It is much 
harder than any of the turnips, and in rich lands, apt to become 
Btringy. We consider it worthy of more extended cultivation. 
There are two varieties, — the ffree7i and purple. Horsford 
gives the nitrogen as 2.17 per cent. 

455. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea.) Of this there is a great 
number of varieties, most of them adapted to garden cultivation. 
In some parts of Great Britain, the larger varieties are cultivat- 
ed in fields for the purpose of feeding cows and other stock ; 
but in the United States, the price of labor, and the climate will 
probably long preclude cabbages from being a field crop. They 
require very rich clayey soils, as well as high cultivation. The 
leaves average 92 per cent, and the stalks 84 per cent, of water. 
The nitrogen is believed to be proportionably greater than in 
any other plant consumed by man except perhaps mushrooms. 
The flower of one species (cauliflower) in the dry state has been 
found to contain as much as G4 per cent, of the flesh-forming 
constituents (Johnston.) The inorganic constituents resemble 
those required by the rest of the family, viz : the alkalies, sul- 
phuric, and phosphoric acids, and chlorine. 

456. Rape. Two species of this are usually cultivated. Rape 
or Cole (Brassica Napus) and Colza (B. mmpestris.) The 
use is twofold — (a) as a forage plant; (b) to afibrd oil from 
Uie seed, the cake of which is largely consumed as a ma- 
nure and as top dressing for wheat and other cereals. Rape is 
a native of England ; is a hardy plant ; and has a wider range of 
loils than the turnip. It requires also, less culture and manure ; 
and can be produced under circumstances in which the turnip 
cannot be profitably cultivated. The root is of no value. As a 
pasture plant it is admirably adapted for sheep. Where the 
climate will permit, it may be sown in spring, for fall feed. It 
is usually drilled 24 inches apart, in the rows, and kept clean by 



AGRICULTURAL TBXT-BOOK. 205 

a cultivator, but, if the land is free from weeds, large crops may 
be raised by broad-castiug. If drilled, 2 lbs. of seed to tlw» 
acre will suffice. It weighs about 53 lbs. to the imperial bushel. 
The cahe in London, sells for about $25 a ton, being one half 
the value of Linseed cake. In 1846, the Patent Office disti> 
buted the seed, and recommended its culture as an oil plant; 
but we are not aware that it has yet been generally introduced. 
As sheep-feed, in our large prairie country, south of Michigan, 
it is deserving of much attention, to take the place of grass in 
the fall. (See Patent Office Report, \MQ, pp. 314, 400.^ 

In the same work for 1850, p. 190, J. E. Dodge, of Erie, Penn., thn» 
■writes : — " I have cultivated Rape for several years, and find it very pro- 
fitable. The soil for growing Rape on should be rich and clean. A 
thorough old-fashioned summer fallow is probably the best for the Rap« 
crop. It should be sown the last of August, — 3 pints of seed to tb« 
acre. It will be ready to cut in the last of June or first of July. Wo 
cut it with large reaping hooks, and lay it in small bunches to dry, fot 
e"ght or ten days. Then, with a large cloth spread over the hay-ladder, 
•we proceed to haul in, and thrash with a flail immediately. The greater 
portion of the chaff is to be raked off. and the remainder left, with tho 
seed, one or two weeks on the barn-floor to dry. It will produce from 
30 to 50 bushels per acre. It i« worth $1.00 per bushel in Erie." 

It is understood, however, that the crop is occasionally injured 
by frosts, if uncovered by snow, in this latitude. As a green 
manure, to be eaten by sheep, and the roots plowed under, it is 
cmsidered essentially valuable, and may profitably take the 
place of an occasional clover crop in wheat culture. 

45V. We have been unable to meet with trustworthy analyses 
of this plant ; but in its general character it resembles the rest 
of its family. 

458. Inorganic analysis of Rape (Rammelshurg) 100 parts 
of seed gave of ash 4.54, — of straw, 5.21. 

Potash, .... 25.18 ai3 

Soda, - . - 19.83 

Lime, - . - . 13.91 gQQg 



206 AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 

Magnesia, • - - 1 1 .39 ? a.^ 

Peroxide of Iron, .... 0.625 

Pbosphoric acid, ... 4'>.95 4.76 

Sulphuric acid, .... 0.53 7.60 

Carbonic acid, - - - 2.20 16.31 

Muriatic acid, .... 0.11 19.93 

Silicic acid, • • - - Ml 0.69 

Dr Madden gives the constituents of the cake as — 

Water, - - - - - 10.5 

Organic matter, .... 85.5 

Earthy phosphates, - - » - 3.0 

Siliciate of potash, .... 1 

Frequently as much as 9 per cent, of soil remains in tLe cake, 
which aftbrds nearly double the fattening matter of Indian corn, 
if it should prove equally available in digestion. Cattle are said 
to dislike the flavor of Rape cake, so that it is rarely used for 
feeding. 

It may be stated in this connection, that Boussingault and Dumas 
consider that the oil of seeds is intended for the production of heat by 
undergoing combustion at the perit)d of germination. Generally, oily 
seeds retain their germinative powers for a long period, but this does 
not appear to be the case with the cabbage family. Such seeds should 
always be fresh ; and certainly not more than two years old. 

Mr. Low concludes his essay on this family in the following words, 
\rhich are worthy of the serious consideration of American farmers : — 
" The extended culture of the turnip has enabled us to cany the prac- 
tice of breeding and feeding our domestic animals to a state of perfec- 
tion, in which no other country has yet been able to rival Great Britain. 
The cultivation of the plant in rows, instead of the former method of 
broadcast, may well be regarded as on improvement of the highest im- 
portance. It has enabled the farmer to secuie abundant returns, which 
the former methods of cultiration did not adroit of, and so to increase 
the number of useful animals that may be maiutained upon the farm, 
and to subject the lighter soils to a species of culture more beneficial 
than any other that had been befo e devised for them." 

To this it may be added, that while, in the northern United States, 
turnip culture may never be as profitable as in Europe, yet it may be 
Tery greatly increased, and by the production of new and hardy varie- 
ties adapted to our climate, and by improved processes of culture it may 



AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 



\ 

207 



be rendered as beneficial to the soil Lere as elsewhere. Not only will 
the improvement of our stock depend on the intiodiiction of green or 
root-feeding during winter, but also the retaining the good qualities of 
the animalH we import, must necessarily do so. They have been rcn* 
deied what 'hey are are by such feeding, and without it they must 
inevitably deteriorate. 

In $444, it is stated that large bulbs " contain less nutritive matter 
than small ones." Tliis subject has just been examined with gre.-itcar« 
and accuracy by Messrs. Sullivan and Gages, Chrmists to the Museum of 
Irish bxliatry ; and as some very important practical facts are now for 
tbe first time brought to light, we add them here : " On the continent 
where beet-roots are grown for the purpose of manufacturing sugar, it 
■was long since remarked, that large sized roots yielded less sugar than 
moderate sized ones, between one and three pounds in weiglit. With a 
few exceptions it is now found, that as a general rule, small roots con- 
tain a larger per-cent.nge of solid matter than larger roots. Thus 100 
tons of the small roots of sugar beet would be equal to 167.43 tons of 
the large; 100 tons of small Mangel-wurzels contain as much solid mat- 
ter as 142.18 tons of large ; 100 tons of small Swedish turnips would 
be equal to II 8. 37 tons of the large, in specimens of all tJiese roots actU' 
ally examined. 

The following table contains a summary of the mean results of the 
examinations of 450 roots. 





.S *s 


■.^ !^ 




B. 


OQ 




Sice of Soot*. 


.^,« 


cat 


EH "3 






O 
hi 

o 

•a 

» 






5 "' 


^1 


tc5 

o 


1= 




n^ 


Average of root* above 7 Ibi. - 


10.204 1 10.»17 


10.785 8.704 


111 755 






" 5 Ibi. - 


11.653 11.476 


11.028 10.115 


ii.2r.7 






From 3 to 5 Ihi. 


I.'>.7<i8 U9,34 


13 974 12.0.S9 12 810 






Average of all rooti, - - 


14.532 13.6X5 


12.645 11 18;. 12.031 


13.370 


12 9?« 



This table shows some unexpected results. Thus the sugar-beet con- 
tains tlie largest amount of solid matter of any of the ro(H crops now 
cultivated ; and red and white carrots, though usually sold at a much 
higher price per ton, are very little superior to ordinaiy Swedes, and 
much inferior to the varieties of beet. Of course, it is not pretended 
that the value of roots can be determined by the per-centawe of solid 
matter alone, as its composition must be taken into account. But in 

the same variety of plant, it will give an approximation to the truth 

indeed practically speaking a very close one ; in different species, ordif 



208 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

feront families of plants, it is absolutely necessary to take the composi- 
tion as well as tlie quantity of solid matter into consideration. In the 
ease of carrots, however, an examination of the solid matter does not 
show that they are superior to that of the beet. As a general rule we 
have found that those roots of a particular variety of the bout which 
had white flesh were superior to those exhibiting a colored flesh. An- 
other cause of exception was that the roots which grew out of the soil, 
and whose upper segment was colored more or less green, contained 
less solid matter than those which had fully grown under the soil ; 
hence if a large part of the root grows out of the soil, the portion thus 
exposed will partake of th« character of the segment immediately be- 
low the crown. This would seem to recommend a change in the usual 
practice of culture." 



CHAPTER XVI. 



POTATO (Solanum tuberosum.) JERUSA- 
LEM ATICHOKE ( Helianthus tuberoaus.) 

458*. Potato. This well known, and till lately, most use- 
ful esculent, belongs to the botanical family of Solanece^ or the 
Night-shade Tribe, of which many of the species are poison- 
ous. The potato itself, in an uncooked state, is, to a certain ex- 
tent, injurious to human beings ; and if kept till spring, in a 
dark place, a new chemical alkaline principle called Solanine i« 
formed in the shoots, which is a powerful poison. (For analy- 
sis.) see Liebig's Animal Chemistry, note ^^.) 

459. As the potato has much diminished in value as a field cjop, 
and there is no prospect at present of the Rot bein» remedied, we shall 
Bay but little abort it, considering it rather as interesting to the 
gardener than the farmer. 

460. It is a native of South America, and is still fonnd wild 
in Chili. 

In 1545, a Slave merchant, John Hawkins, introduced the potato from 
New Grenada into Ireland. From Ireland the plant passed to Belgium 
in 1590. It was neglected in England till introduced by Sir Walter 
Raleigh in the beginning of the 17th century ; and was not in general 
cultivation in Scotland till near the end of the eighteenth century. 
When the potato came from Virginia into England, for the second time, 
it was alrendy disseminated over Spain and Italy. It has bpen ascer- 
tained that this root has been cultivated on the great scale in Lancnshire, 
England, .since 1684; in Saxony, since 1717; in Prussia in 1738. In 
1710, it began to spread in Germany, but the famines of 1771 and 1772 
seemed necessary to lead the Germans to cultivate it upon the great 
scale. In less than two centuries it has literally overspread the eartli ; 
14 



210 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

and at the present day is found growing from the Cape of Good Hops 
to Ireland and Lapland. (Dou$singauU and Sit J. Sinclair.) 

The Egg Plant {Solanum Melongena ;) the Tomato {Lycoperiieunt 
etculentum,) and the Red Pepper ( Capsicuin annuum,) as esculents ; and 
Deadly Night-shade, (Alropa Belladonna,) a well known medicine, be- 
long to the same family. The Bittersweet of our own woods and fen- 
ces (S. Dulcamara,) may be mentioned as the Type in the Northern 
United States. 

461. The plant may be propagated by seed, in which case a 
vast number of new varieties is originated ; or by the tubers, 
which contain buds or germs from each of which a stem will 
arise ; and the variety continue constant. The germ will grow 
equally well if severed from the tuber, retaining merely a small 
fragment of the skin and substance ; and it submits to desicca- 
tion by a hot stove without losing vitality. 

It has long been a disputed point whether it were better lo plant the 
entire tuber, or to cut it up into fragments, but no accurate decision 
seems to have been arrived at. In consequence, we may conclude that 
the practical difference is very small. General custom leans towards 
the latter plan . " It has been observed that "eyes" or germs taken from 
tuber that have not been fullj ripened are more vigorous than those that 
have been taken from such as havo been very fully ripened. This leads to a 
rule in practice, that the tnbcr to be planted shall be those which were 
taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn." (Low.) 

The number of varieties is very great, and always increasing. 
The chief distinction is that of early and late kinds. 

462. The peculiar characteristic of this root is the quantity 
of starch that it contains in combination with much water, and 
potash in its ash. The quantity of dry solid matter depends 
much upon the state of ripeness to which it has attained. The 
ripest leave 30 to 32 per cent of dry matter, the least ripe only 
24 per cent. The quantity of starch varies according to variety 
from 1 Of to 32 per cent; and, accordicg to Liebig, in the wild 
state, this root is almost destitute of nourishing constituent^. 
Since the rot has prevailed, potatoes appear to have lost much 
<tf the starch they previously possessed. The crop, also, other 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 211 

things being equal, varies in the weight per acre, according to 
variety, more than perhaps any other culti\'ated plant. The 
quantity of starch is at its maximum in the winter. In the 
spring, vegetation becomes active, and the buds begin to grow at 
the expense of the starch contained in the tuber. Hence, at this 
season, potatoes are less mealy, and, in consequence, less es- 
teemed for eating. The tissue of the potato consists of a mass 
of cells, and in these the starch is stored up in the form of grains, 
of the ordinary shape, and these congregate principally in a zone 
near the skin, and are less abundant toward the center; the re- 
maining space, in and between the cells, is occupied by a thin 
albuminous liquor, constituting three-fourths of the total weight 
of the tubers. All the nitrogenous matter is dissolved in the 
juice, and consists almost entirely of albumen, with a very small 
quantity of asparagin and fi'ee acids. The substance of which 
the cells consist is essentially different from that found in other 
plants. It possesses the property of swelling in water into a 
translucent jelly, and of being transformed into sug.ar and gum 
by the action of acids, and consequently occupies a position in- 
termediate between starch and woody fibre. Potatoes are rea- 
dily frozen at a few degrees below freezing point, and when 
again thawed are soft and sodden, and allow the greater part of 
the juice to flow out — in fact, the cells are burst by the ice formed 
within them, the organic structure is destroyed and vitality lost ; 
■while decay speedily succeeds. A chemical change, when the 
freezing has been gradual, is often perceptible ; the tubers be- 
come remarkably sweet, and contain an appreciable quantity of 
uncrystallizable sugar. 

463. Ultimate analysis of the Potato : — (Boussingault.) 
Carbon, - - 44 

Hytlritjjen, - - 5.8 

Oxygc'i, - - 447 

NitP'gen, - -1.5 

Aslien, - - 4.0 !()(((» 

From this we fee that the proportion of Nitrogen is vfry small ; but 
it is Btill smaller in potatoes tlint have been kept fur some time. 



Wat.T, . . 75 9 

S lid nviner(hieilat230 = 

Far. in caC"n, - 24.1 



212 



AGRICULTCRAL TEXT-BOOK. 



100 parts of - . - . 


Moisture. 


Nitrogen in 
dried sub- 
stance. 


Nitrogen in 

undried sub' 

stance. 


Potato, fresh, 

Potato, kept ten months, 


79 4 

76.8 


1.80 
1.18 


0.37 
0.2a 



464. Proximate analysis of the Potato: 



MICIIAELIS. 


1 


JOHNSTON". 




Eed Potato. 


1 

1 


[Natural state. 


Dry. 


Water, 


66.875 


WatiT, - 


. 


7552 




Stjirch and amylaceous fibre, 


30.4fiO 


Starch, 


. 


15.72 


64.20 


All)unien, 


0..'i(i3 


Dcxttine, 


. 


55 


225 


Gluten, 


0.0.15 


Sugar, - 


., 


3.30 


13.47 


Kat, 


OMG 


Albumen, 


casein / 


141 


5.77 


Gum, ... 


0.020 


Gluten, 


AsparaRin, 


0.0(;3 


Fat, 


. 


0.24 


100 


Extractive, - - - 


9.921 


Fibre, 


. 


■^f 


13.31 


Chloride of potassium, - 


176 








Silicate, alumina, and salts, - 


81.'- 










Free citric acid, (?) - 


0.017 











According to llliscb, what was formerly believed to be citric acid is 
phospboiir, muriatic, and malic acids. 

465. Inorganic analysis of the Potato. ( Boussingmdt ; 
Fromberg; and Dauheny.) 





'z 


>. 


— 





— 




— -- 




c 


a 















































































1 


?^ 




3 




o 


St 




o 


o 






JH 




1 i 


3. 

5j 


s 


S 


3 

a. 


•3 


i 


o 
6 


1 
















a 






jC 


a 




^- 










Cu 


'/I 


-/ 


a. 






Potato tubers, 




4.0 uw yt>i 


6l> 


2.C9 


13.16 


» -il 


6. .52 


O.sy 6 20 ) J 


<i 




• 01 .57.5s 


3 66 


4..53 


0.81 


9 98 


14.63 


3.6s 


0.42 -.6 \ 2- 


do 1 




3.75 


49.73 


1.93 


5.03 


3.31 


14.58 


18.04 


2 49 


0..'i6 7.5 'i 3 


do 


1.27 


46.60 


8 70l454 


13.30 


4.66 


1.95 


3..30i3.43 13.30 


do 


1.08 


50.0(i;o.84 


6S5i2.7<) 


16.20 


2.37 


7.15 


5.15 


1.95 


11.90 


do 


0.76 


1380 




)2.65l3.10 


11.15 


6.0 


6.67 


6.85 


2.30 


6.70 


Me!«n of six analyses, ? 
Osrl). ncid dedn-fed, (, 








I 














3.92 55 7.';ll.R6 


5 2<!'2.07 


I2..57 13 64 


4 23l0 52 


7.01 



466. According to Boussingault and Liebig, the nutritive 
power of the potato is -very low. "A horse may be kept alive'* 
says the latter "by feeding it with potatoes, but life tlui.s sup- 
ported is gradual starvation ; the animal increases neither in size 
or strength, and sinks under every exertion." The true value 
of this tubor, as food, is evidently to supply carbon, in the shape 



AGRICOLT0EAL TEXT-BOOK. 213 

of starch, for tho purpose of sustaining breath and heat, not for 
building up the body. Pereira estimates that 1 lb. of butcher's 
meat is equal to 10^ lbs. of potatoes. In consequence, thost; 
who live sololy upon them are obliged to consume inordinate 
quantities ; and the stomach, habitually distended with the great 
bulk, becomes unnaturally enlarged, and incapable of digesting 
concentrated food. This was shown during the Irish famine, 
when more than an equivalent of corn meal, or other nitrogen- 
ous food, being much smaller in quantity, entirely failed to sus- 
pend that craving which the stomach feels when empty. 

At the same time, in consequence of the great yield per acre, 
much more nourishment can be produced from a given area of 
soil by this crop, than by any other except perhaps corn. The 
following l^ample will prove this (Knajyp) : — 

From one hectare of land (=== 2.471 acres) there were pro- 
duced under similar circumstances, 

3,400 lbs. wheat, 2.800 lbs. rye, 2,200 lbs. peas, 38,000 lbs. potatoes, or 
3,036 do 2,538 do 2,980 do 9,500 do 

after deducting the amount of moisture. In this quantity of 
dry produce there is contained : 

III wheat. In rje. 

Jfitiogenous matters, 570 lbs. 440 lbs. 
Starch, 1,590 " 1,196 " 

Miner.il ingredients, 90 " 62 " 

And in consequence, when the Irisli learnt to depend on this food 
alone, cultivating chiefly with the spade, population very rapidly in- 
creased ; the land was subdivided into portions too small to be profita- 
bly applied to grain — for where one acre of potatoes would sustain a 
family, it would require many acres of grain to do the same, together 
with the necessary cattle — and when this crop failed, there was nothing 
to fall back upon, starvation ensuing in consequence. In India, the 
same results follow the dependence on rice, in many respects a very 
similar food. It may be laid down as a general principle, that the more 
highly civilized, intelligent, and prosperous nations are, the greater 
amount of nitrogenous vegetable and animal aliment do they con- 
sume ; and in wearing out the soil of a single farm, or of a Slate, 
the decline is gradually from musclc-forraiug to heat-producing pro* 



In peas. 


In potatoe*. 


560 lbs. 


950 lbs. 


780 " 


6,840 " 


60 " 


323 " 



214 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

ducts, and finally to grass, for cattle raisinij, for tlie use of distant 
oonininiiiiies. But as the tfrass-product becomes general the population 
gradually decre.iSes in numbers. 

467. We shall not attempt to explain the cause of the Rot, 
nor yet repeat the various theories which have been originated. 
The ablest scientific men — while each has his own private opin- 
ion — acknowledge their inability, satisfactorily to account for it, 
any further than for the cholera and similar human epidemics. 
It is probably owing to some undetected atmospheric influence, 
and may be connected with electrical phenomena. One fact, 
however, ajipears to be generally acknowledged, viz, that rich, 
ammoniacal fermentnig manures, tend to increase the disease, and 
that new soils, of a porous character, or old soils supplied with 
inorganic manures, are apt to produce the healthiest tubers. It 
is a peculiarity in this case, that remedies which are successful 
in one instance or locality, entirely fail in others; and thus, all 
specific curative means are now looked upon with suspicion. In 
Russiji, drying the potato soon after digging, by artificial heat, 
has been found successful, yet failed in England; while, in 
Michigan, Mr. Mott and others have remedied the evil by leav- 
ing the tubers intended for seed in the ground whei'e they grew 
until required for planting, taking the precaution to plant deep 
and cover with straw to prevent freezing. It is certain that in 
some soils this is a perfect preventive, and some unexplained 
change goes on in the potato ; for, in the second season, the old 
potato which has acted as seed will be found perfectly sound, 
but altered in flavor. The same gentleman recommends leav- 
ing the tubers, intended for eating in the spring, in the ground 
all winter, when they will be found as fresh and unaltered as 
they were in the preceding autumn. (See Farmer's Compan- 
ion and Horticultural Gazette, Vol. i, p. 77. ii, p. 14.j The fol- 
lowing receipt has been lately published by an English farmer, 
not only as a manure, for which purpose it is undoubtedly excel- 
lent, but also as a preventive: — (Ayricultmal Gazette,) 



AaaiOULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 215 

30 lbs. wood aslies, 20 lbs. common snlt, 

15 lbs. burnt bones, in fine powder, 30 lbs. air-slacked lime, 

10 lbs. plaster, (su'phate of lime,) 7 Iba. nitrate of Koda, (talipetre ) 

The whole to be intimately mixed. When planting, put into 
oveiy hole an ounca of the above, cover it with some earth, and 
plant the tuber, or cutting above it. Habitually damp, undrain- 
ed, adhesive clays sXould be avoided for this crop, while sands, 
gravels, and loams, lying on a porous subsoil, may oft^n be suc- 
cessfully tried, even now. 

408. In Great Britain, the potato was considered as ?i fallow- 
crop, and improved the land still more in consequence of being 
liberally supplied with fresh animal manures; and the surface, 
between the plants, being frequently plowed and hoed. Great 
pains were taken in preparing the field, and it was left in fine 
condition for wheat or other grains, which will not bear the di- 
rect application of dung. In our rotations, corn may take this 
tuber's place, especially if planted at distant intervals. In that 
country it was and is usually grown in row8, tlie earth being 
hoaped up around the potato plant as it grew. In the United 
States much less pains have generally been taken, and the kill 
system is commonly followed ; 4 potatoes, or «e^*, being plant- 
ed close together in each hill. These hills are from three to 
f>ur f«iot apart, and the interval is worked and kept clean with 
the plow and hoe. Undoubtedly the largest crops per acre can 
be raisel on the English plan. When healthy, the time for 
digging, is when the stalks and leaves have partially withered ; 
or when the skin of a tuber, recently unearthed, cannot be rea- 
dily rubbed off with the hand. In Michigan, there is usually a 
period in October of the two or three weeks, when the weather 
is steadily fine, dry, and warm ; but is succeeded by rains and 
frosts. This time, then, should be seized for the harvesting of 
this crop. The Irish dig with a spade or shovel ; the New En- 
glanders with a fork; or potato-hoe. The first, our experience 
teaches us to be the most rapid, and cleanest; but the shovel, 



216 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

when lifted, requires a peculiar twist of the wrist, by which the 
earth and tubers are separated, and deposited in different places, 
which twist requires practice to accomplish successfully. In 
harvesting, it is important that the potatoes be not left exposed 
to the air and sun longer than can possibly be avoided. When 
first dug they are peculiarly sensitive to light, and if kept cover- 
ed in the wagon Avith a thick cloth, or straw, till laid by in a 
dark place, they will retain their mealy qualities much longer 
than otherwise. A potato, exposed partially to the air in grow- 
ing, turns green, moist, and unpleasantly waxy. This mistake 
is often made ; the tubers being left on the ground in small 
heaps, for at least a whole day, or even several days. While 
this was an important crop with us, we always threw them into 
a cora-basket ; and this, as soon as it was full, was emptied into 
a covered wagon ; the consequence was, that the potatoes were 
remarkable for their fine flavor, and good qualities. 

469. Besides being used in ihe ordinary shape, many preparations of 
starch were prepaie i from the potato. The larger quantity of tlie starch 
used by the laundress, and articles sold under the name of Arrourool 
Farina, <tc., were<]erived from this plant. British ffim, (Dextiiiic,) ex- 
tensively used in stiffening calicos, and applied to the back of pfistage 
stamps, is formed from wheat starch by roasting, or by nitric or sulphu- 
ric acid, potato starch failing to pfoduce it. The water, in which pota- 
toes hare been boiled, is destructive to lice upon hogs, cattle, <tc. The 
potato possesses a peculiar curative power over the Scurvy which attacks 
sailors confined to salt meat. In France, an extensive manufacture of 
Sugar from Potato Fecula or Starch is carried on, " Thus by the aid of 
Chemistry wo obtain sugar from potato-starch, 8ul|)huric acid, chalk, 
and water. The sugar is used for giving "body" to Burgundy wine, 
and for confectionary." (Annual of Scien. Disc. Vol. 1, p. 113.) 

470. Jerusalem Artichoke (derived from the It.ilianword 
for Sunflower, girasole ; i. e. ffirare, to turn, and sole sun, — 
bearing no reference to the Citi/ of Jerusalem^) belongs to the 
family of Sunflowers, and is a native of America. It was intro- 
duced into Europe probably from Mexico in 1497; and wa« 
much esteemed before potatoes were generally used ; and in case 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 21 T 

of the total loss of the latter esculent, may be so again. In France 
and Germany it is extensively grown as food for stock ; we re- 
member seeing, a few years since, large fields of it near Massilon 
in Ohio, and it has been successfully tried in New York, Ala- 
bama, tfec. In the United States, however, it is not usually cul- 
tivated, except in gardens. Both the tubers and stalks are val- 
uable. The first are occasionally eaten, either boiled or roasted, 
by men, but are not in the present day much esteemed as a veg- 
etable, being apt to produce flatulency. The tubers grow in 
clusters attached to the true root, somewhat in the manner of 
potatoes, and the stems are from 5 to 10 feet in height, with a 
considerable quantity of large leaves. In Michigan it flowers, 
but does not bear seed. The crop is large, giving from 10 tons, 
to 1,200 bushels of tubers, and 1 1^ cwts, of dried stems per acre. 
(Boussi)igault, and iV. Y. Ctdlivator.) The tubers, when 
once planted, are very apt to spread, and are diflicult to eradi- 
cate ; but in Europe this inconvenience appears to be obviated by 
turning swine into the field. " Taking into account the hardy 
qualities of this plant, its productiveness, and easy culture, it may 
be doubted whether it merits the neglect into which it has 
fallen. Granting its inferiority as an article of food for cattle 
to turnips, &c, it must be of some importance, especially since 
the potato has failed, to have a plant that can be so easilyraised, 
and on soils so low in the scale of fertility." (Low.) 

471. Ultimate Analysis of the Tuber (A) and dried Stem 
(B) of the Jerusalem Artichoke. ( Boussingault.) 

A tuber fresh from the ground weighed 1 oz. 15 6-10 dwts : after dry- 
ing in the stove 7-lOths dwls : after complete desiccation, one part was 

reduced to 0.208. 

A B 



Carbon, 
Hydrogen, 
Oxyeen, 
Nitmgi n, 
Ash 



I. 


II. 




4302 


43.62 


45 66 


5.91 


5 80 


5 43 


43.56 


43 07 


45.72 


1.57 


1..S7 


043 


5.94 


5.94 


2.76 



Ji8 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



In this analysis of (he stalks, the carbon and nitrogen are probably 
rated too low. It vill be observed that these tubers are almost identical 
in composition with the potato, the only essential difFereiice being a lit- 
tle more asli in the first. According to the same writer, 30.8 lbs. of Je- 
riisaiein Articliokes are equal to 11 lbs. hay, as food for horses. " These 
roots are excellent food for the horse ; they are eaten greedily, and he 
thrives upon tliem." 

472. Proximate analysis of Lho tubers of the Jerusalem Ar- 
tichoke. (Braconnot.) 

Uncrystallizable Sugar, ... 14.80 

luuline, - - ... 3.00 

Glim, - -' - - . 1.22 

Albumen. - - - - - 1.00 

Fatty Matter, - ... 0.09 

Citrates of palash and lime, ... 1.15 

Phosphates of potash and lime, ... 0.20 

Sulphate of potasii, - - - -0 12 

Cliloiide of potassium, ... 0.08 

M ilates and tartrates of potash and lime, - - 0.05 

Woody fibre, .... 1.22 

Silica, ..... 0.03 

Wate., .... 77.05 

M. Payen found a larger proportion of Susrar in this tuber than that 
stated above, and be ascertained that the fatty matter consists of stear- 
ine and elainu. 

Boussingault found : — 
Of dry matter, 20.8 | Water, 79.2. 

473. Inorganic analysis of the tuber of the Jerusalem Arti- 
choke. (Boussingault.) Per ceutage of ash in dry state 6.00. 

5467 

tiaces 

282 

2.21 

6.39 

- 13.27 

2.70 

1.97 

15.97 



Potash, 

Soda, 

Lime, - -^ 

Magnesia, 

0.tide of iron, alumina, ^c, 

Phospliorif acid, 

Sulphuric acid. 

Chlorine, 

Silica. 



It will be observed how rich in phosphoric acid this plant is, 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



219 



and consequently liow beneficial for growing animals ; but iu 
order to derive all the benefit possible from this fact, either wa- 
ter rich in lime, or some food containing an abundance of calcium 
should be supplied at the same time. 

Inuline (C24, Hji, Oji.) is a variety of starch found in the dahlia, and 
many other plants; specific gravity, 1.356, fuses at 212®; rendered 
yellow by iodine. Its aqueous solution doi'S not gelatinize in cooling. 
{Solly.) 

The following is tho result of the analyses of two varieties of Jerusalem 
Artichoke — tho white and red — made by Dr. Salisbury of Albany, N. Y., 
in 1850 :— 

White Tubers, Red Tubers, Tops of red variety. 
Water, - - 83.608 6835 40.08 

Dry matter, - 16392 31.65 59 92 

Ash, - - 774 1.352 3.85 

Ash Calc. or dry matter, 4 728 4.27 6.425 

Inorganic analy>e< of the tubers of Wliite f A,] and Red [B,] Jerusa- 
lem Artichokes, and the tops of the Red variety, [C,] grown near Alba- 
ny, N. Y.:— 

Carbonic acid, 
Silicic acid, 
Phosphoi ic rcid. 
Phosphate of iron, 
Lime, 
Magnesia, 
Potash. - 
Soda, 
Chlorine, 
Sulphuiic acid, 

98.75 98.80 99.60 
Proximate analysis of the ficsh tubersof the White [A,] and Red [B,] 
Jerusalem Artichoke; and of the fresh tubers of the Potato, [C] 



Water, 

Fibre, 

Sugar and extract. 

Dextrine, 

Casein, 



A 


B 


C 


21.75 


23.10 


trace 


1.60 


1.40 


26.55 


9.75 


12.05 


11.10 


1.20 


1.25 


3.25 


1.95 


3.35 


1830 


0.55 


0.30 


8.85 


42.20 


43.65 


11.40 


1525 


6.60 


15.85 


2.55 


265 


0.85 


1.95 


4.45 


4.05 



A 


B 


C 


83.608 


68.330 


74.712 


2 232 


3676 


6.839 


3.952 


7.688 


2.367 


26.S2 


5436 


0923 


2.052 


4.400 


2.054 



A 


B 


C 


2.080 


4.086 


0.185 


2.850 


5.884 


12.399 


0.168 


0.184 


trace. 


0.096 


0.122 


O.fiOD 


0.024 


0.018 


0.008 


of the White [A.] and 


A 




B 


45.817 




45.918 


40.926 




40.566 


5 768 




4.829 


3.378 




3.597 


4728 




4.270 



220 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Albumen, 

Starch, 

Resin, 

Glutinous matter. 

Fat, - - . 

Ultimate organic analysis of the dry ti 
Red [B,] Jerusalem Artichokes: — 

Carbon, . - - 

Oxygen, - . . 

Hydrogen. ... 

Nitrogen, 
Ash, 

474. The tubers are an excellent food for milch cows, horses, 
and sheep, but should be used in connection with dry food and 
salt. Hogs likewise prosper upon them ; and when the ground 
is not frozen, they can help themselves and save the cost of har- 
vesting. The nourishing quality of the root is very little, if any 
lower than that of the potato, while its inorganic constituents 
are more useful. The stalks are nearly as valuable as the tu- 
bers ; and in this respect it has an advantage over the potato. 
Although cutting the stalk in the beginning of September may 
diminish the growth of the tubers — which is questionable — the 
fodder that is obtained at that season will fully compensate for 
the loss. 

According to Schwertz, 100 kilogrammes (—220.548 lbs, av- 
oirdupois) of green stalks, equal as regards nutritious qualities 
31.250 kilogrammes of hay; but the value is increased if they 
are mixed with other vegetable matters. If for winter fodder, 
the stalks should be left as late as possible, cut, and dried as hay ; 
and in this condition all domeetic animals eat them. In some 
parte of Europe, the stalks are also used as fuel; and Boussin- 
gault found them profitable as absorbers of liquid manure, — ow- 
ing to the amount of pith — when thrown into hog-pens. 

475. The soil and climate appear to matter little. The tu- 



AGBl CULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 221 

bet's, either above or below ground, bear a degree of cold that 
no other cultivated root will do. They are thus of essential util- 
ity in northern climates, and may be left in the ground all win- 
ter, if wanted for early spring use. This plant can bear the 
effects of great heat equally well. With the exception of 
marshes, all places and all soils suit; and even the shade of 
trees, in moderation, is not injurious. The following results 
have been arrived at by experiments in France : — 

Alluvial land gave, 20.868 Kilog. of tubers. 

Turfy land, reri/ </ry, 26768 " " . 

Sindyclay, 22563 " " 

Calcareous earth, 18.908 " " 

From which it would appear that dry and light soils agree best 

with this plant. 

476. In Europe, where Artichokes enter regularly into rota- 
tions, the ground is prepared and manured as if for potatoes, in 
the spring: and planting should be accomplished, as early as 
possible. They may, however, be planted, equally well, late in 
the fall, in dry soils. Whole tubers are used, and placed in rows, 
at about 1 inch below the surface, leaving sufficient space be- 
tween the rows to use the cultivator, and the plants about nine 
inches apart. When they appear above ground, the soil is kept 
clean with the plow or cultivator, and hand hoe. If not har- 
vested the first year, they will cover the whole surface of tha 
ground the second season. 

477. The stalks, if intended for dry fodder, must be left as late 
as the climate will allow of their being entirely dried. They 
may be cut with a strong sickle, or a corn-knife, from 2 to 3 feet 
above the ground, if tall ; or in proportion, if short. They are 
lightly bound in bundles, and seven of these bundles are placed 
in shocks. After a week, and when the outside leaves are well 
dried, the shocks are separated, and replaced, so that 14 stand 
together, and 7 are placed on the top, like a roof, with the cut 
ends upward, and strongly fastened toward that end. In this 
way they stand till perfectly dry. 



222 AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 

478. TLe tubers may be dug when convenient, in the same 
manner tliat potatoes are ; but, if another crop is intended to 
succeed, great care must be taken to gather up every portion. 
As they grow in clumps, a httle experience will render this easy. 
If it is intended to continue artichokes on the same ground 
enough small tubers may be left to sei ve for seed next season, 

479. If they are to be used during the winter, they may be 
piled in heaps in a dry place, and covered with straw and earth. 
Wet injures them more than frost. (Girardin and Debreid; 
See also Patent Office Report 1844, p. 145; 1845, p. 321; 
1846, p. 186; 1848, p. 159, 578.) 

4S0. In the above references, much interesting information w 11 be 
found. We would haidiy, in our present slate of :igricuhuie. recom 
mend this crop to be intiod iced into our rotations or upon ricli so Is, 
but we are confident that every farmer \voul<i find it profitable to set 
apart a field for tnis plant, and use the stalks in place of iiay, and the 
tubers for his horses, sheep, milch ows, and hogs in winter and spring. 
1 here are certainly few plants which can be raised so readily, nor one 
which will yield more food at less cost. After a few years the artichoke 
will die out, in many localities ; having exhausted ihc soil of the peculiar 
food it requires. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



PARSNIP (Pastinaca eativa.) CARROT 
(DaucusCarota,) BEETf'^eitt Vulgaris.) 

481. The Parsnip is a native of England, of the Continent 
of Europe, and of Asia, but in its wild state is useless, if not 
poisonous. It has become naturalized as a wild plant in the 
United States, (Gray;) and when once established as a weed, 
is very difficult to exterminate, while the root diminishes in 
size. Formerly, it was in more general use than at present, and 
it is now more cultivated in Catholic countries than in Protest- 
ant. Shakespear refers to it in the old proverb that " smooth 
words butter no parsnips." It is cultivated both as a field and 
garden crop; and in the Channel Islands, (Jereey, Guernsey, 
and Alderney,) and in parts of France, it is greatly depended 
on for fattening hogs and cattle, and as food for milch cows, for 
all which purposes it is perhaps supeiior to any other root. 

482. There is probably only one species, but several varie- 
ties, of which, in Great Britain and America, the Large Jet" 
Bey is considered the best for field culture. Of this there are 
two sub-varieties, (a,) the fusiform, which strikes deeply into 
the earth, and (b,) the napiform, which becomes thick, and 
grows near the surfiice. French writers mention three 'varie- 
ties as worthy of attention ; (c^) the Coquaine, with a long root, 
and tall leaves ; (d-,) the Lisbonnaise, with a shorter and thickef 
root; and (e,) the Siam, small, and of a yellowish tinge, tender, 
and richer in flavor than the others. Any of these, however, 
will degenerate in poor soil, or by careless culture. 



224 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



483. Late examinations have proved this root to be more 
nutritive than the Carrot, while it greatly excels the latter in 
hardiness ; freedom from disease and insects ; in its adaptation 
to soils ; in its yield ; and facility of culture. We believe that 
it is far too much neglected, and were the fashion to change in 
our Northern States it would be greatly for the benefit of 
farmers. 

All animals are fond of the Parsnip. To milch cows it is eminently 
favorable, giving a flavor ai'd richness to their milk which no other win- 
ter vegetable but the Carrot can give. The cows of Jersey and Guern- 
sey fed with Parsnips and hay, yield butter during the winter of as fine 
a tinge, and nearly as good flavor, as if they were fed in pastures. To 
horses it is equally suited as the Carrot. Hogs are extremely fond of it, 
and, when boiled, poultry may be fed upon it. (Zotc.) To this may 
be added, that next to the Artichoke, it bears frost the best of any of 
our cultivated roots, and it may be left in the ground through winter, 
not only without injury, but even with an apparent increase of saccha- 
rine matter. . 

484. No ultimate analysis of this root appears to have been 
made. (B. T. Hemming^ 1852.^ 

485. Proximate analysis of the Parsnip root (Voelcl-er, 
1852;^ grown on stony, shalloAvsoil, on the farm of the Royal 
Agricultural College, Cirencester, England. 

Water, 

Inorganic matter, (ash,) • 

Nitroi^enized organic substances, - 
Carbonaceous matters, 

or the same dried at 212 * F. — 

Nifrogenized substances, - « 

Carbonaceous matter, 
Inorganic mattern, («sh,) - 

100.00 100.00 100.00 

Parsnips contain 6 to 8 per cent less water than turnips, and 5 to 6 

per cent less than mangolds. The quantity of flesh-forming substances 



I. 

81.780 


11. 
82 ..320 


Averajfe. 

82.050 


0.941 


0.924 


0.932 


1.310 


1.250 


1.280 


15.969 


15.506 


1.5.7.38 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


I. 


II. 


ATeragp, 


7.43 


7.12 


7.27 


87.41 


87.65 


87.54 


5.16 


5 23 


5.19 



In natural state. 


Calculated dry. 


82.050 




8.022 


44.691 


0.208 


1.159 


0.550 


3.064 


0.665 


3.704 


0.748 


4.166 


0.455 


2.535 


2.882 


16.055 


0.339 


1.888 


0.033 


0.184 


3.507 


19.537 


0.546 


3 041 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 225 

in fresh Parsnips is about the same as that contained in turnips. In a 
dried state, however, turnips are richer in protein compounds than pars- 
nips. 

486. Detailed proximate compositioa of Parsnips. ( Voel- 
cTcer.) 

Water, 

Cellular fibre, 

Ash united with the fibre, - 

Insoluble protein compounds, • 

Soluble casein, - 

Gum and Pectin, 

Salts insoluble in alcohol, - 

Sugar, ... 

Salts soluble in alcohol, 

Ammonia in the state of ammonical salts. 

Starch, 

Oil, 

487. Inorganic analysis of the Parsnip. (JHchardnon.) 
Potash, ..... 36.12 
Soda, - - - - 3.11 
Magnesia, ..... 994 
Lime, ..... 11.43 
Phosphoric acid, .... 18.66 
Sulphuric acid, .... 6.50 
Silica, ..... 4,10 
Phosphate of iron, - - - - 3.71 
Chloride of sodium, .... 5 54 

By this it will be perceived that it belongs to the class of 
potash plants, but that it is also rich in the phosphates. The 
starch is all deposited in the external layers of the roots ; the 
second layers contain much more protein compounds than either 
the heart or the outer layers. It will thus be noticed that the 
albuminous or protein compounds are not uniformly distributed 
throughout the whole mass of the root. 

Layers between 
In outer lajer*. Heart. the heart aud tlie 

outer layers. 

Per centage of nitrogen, 1.039 1.069 1.500 

Equal to 
Protein compounds, 6.493 6.668 9,375 

15 



226 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 

488. Parsnips succeed best in a deep, Avell pulverized, loamy 
soil, but will prosper in much heavier clays than carrots, espe- 
cially if the soil is formed of granitic rocks. They require depth, 
and consequently the ground should be plowed deeply, or sub- 
soiled, which is better still; but they will force their roots in 
spite of obstructions. Fresh barn-yard manure is not injurious 
to them. 

489. The land being manured, (if requisite,) and plowed, is 
harrowed and rolled, and the seed sown broad-cast, by hand in 
rows, or by drill.* If by either of the first modes, it must be 
lightly harrowed, care being taken not to bury it above 1 or 1^ 
inches deep. It is important that the seed be fresh: if two 
years old it will not vegetate. In Jersey 3 or 4 lbs. (Le 
Couteur) in Scotland 10 lbs. (Stephens) per acre of seed are 
required. It generally vegetates slowly. Some soak it and 
mix it with damp sand to hasten germination, but in this case 
it should not be sown in dry land. If in drills, they should be 
just wide enough to admit a one horse plow or cultivator, — 
about 20 inches — and by degrees the plants must be thinned to 
6 or 9 inches apart, according to the size of the variety, and the 
richness of the soil; but it is better to sow rather heavily to 
prevent misses. When the plants are one inch high they are 
to bo weeded with a hoe, and the land must be kept clean in 
this manner till they are large enough to admit a cultivator. 
After this they grow very rapidly, and soon cover the ground 
with their leaves, and prevent the further growth of weeds. 

The following plan is recomraended, where a good drill cannot be 
procured. When the land is well harrowed and leveled, sow the seed 
broad-cast, bavrow, and roll it ; then when the plants appear, hoe 
into drills, either with a hoe-plow or hand-hoe. 

The chief labor requisite, is keeping down the weeds till the 
parsnips gain sufficient size to do it themselves. 

•The Drills manufhctured by Emery & Co., of Albany, N. Y., iow tliig geed rego* 
l&rly and »t a proper depto. 



AGRICULTURAL TBXT-BOOK. 227 

490. Harvesting is most readily performed with a plow, with 
a blunt or worn out share, drawn by a pair of horses, along or 
across the rows. The pressure of the plow and earth forces the 
roots out of the ground, when they arc gathered into baskets by 
hand. They may be left in the ground, if intended for winter 
use, as long as the frost will permit; and, if for spring use, 
through the whole winter. They may be kept in cellars, or a.s 
is recommended for artichokes. 

491. In Jersey, the crop averages from 9 to 11 tons per acre, 
but has been known to be as great as 27 tons 8 cwt. 

492. When the leaves begin to fade, they should be cut off 
and given to cows ; but if they are moist from lain or dew they 
are apt to inflame the udder. A good armful a day to each 
cow will impart nearly as much richness to the milk as the parb- 
nip itself. 

493. Domestic animals will cat the roots raw, but hogs are 
believed to prosper better upon them if they are cooked. Pork 
made of turnips is said to be quite equal to that made of corn. 
(See Trans, of iV". V. Slate Agricultural Society, Vol. xi, p. 
360.) 

494. Wine has been mar's of this root, and a pure spiiit may be ob- 
tained from it by dis'.illation. 

495. For seed, the plants should be allowed to stand till the 
second season, or the best roots may be set out two feet apart 
each way, the crowns being under the surface of the ground. 
In the latter mode from 1^ to 4 lbs. of seed may be expected 
from a 8(iuare rod of 16^ feet. (Stephens.) The seeds ripen 
irregularly, and should be gathered by hand when ready, being 
spread under cover till quite dry. 

The seers are apt to produce bli.sti-rs and watery vei=icies on the bands 
and arms of those gathering them, wiiieti may be pieverted by rubbing 
well with grease previous to commencMig. 

496. Neither insectvS nor disease of any kind appear to injure 
this plant in ihe United States. 



228 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

497. The best manures, are rich dung, guano, bones in some 
form, wood asbes, plaster, and common salt. The inorganic 
compound should be drilled in with the seed. 

498. The Carrot — ^like the parsnip — belongs to the botan- 
ical order of UmbelUferce, the Hemlock or Parsley family, some 
of the species of which are mutritive, and many of them poison- 
ous. The wild carrot is a common weed in Europe, and i» 
wholly useless, having a hard, slender, fusiform root. Mr. Low 
is inclined to think that our edible variety has been derived 
from warmer countries, and not from the wild plant of northern 
Europe, which no modern cultivation has been able to change. 
It was known to the Romans, and is described by Pliny. It 
was introduced into England, as a field crop, by Flemish refu- 
gees, towards the end of the 16th century. The varieties are 
very numerous, being divided into (a,) field, (b,) garden, (c,) 
red, (d,) white, &c., Avhile the root varies in shape from fusiform 
to napiform. The most esteemed for field culture are the (e,) 
White Belgian, (f^) Altringham, (g,) orange, and (h,) long red 
carrot. 

499. The culture of this root for the feeding of stock has 
rapidly increased both in America and Europe, during late 
years: still, with us, it is rare, and grown in small quantities, 
]t requires a peculiar soil, and careful cultivation, and in its early 
stages is difficult to attend to. At the same time, it is nutritive, 
and when every thing is suited to it, very heavy crops may be 
grown. 

Analysis appears to indicate tbat 350 to 400 parts of canots are re- 
quired to replace 100 parts of good meadow hay in feeding horses ; and 
ihis root is much inferior to (he equivalent of potatoes, in practice. 
(Bouasinpaiilt.) Thaer says tbat a working horse may be kept in con- 
dition on 70 or 80 lbs. of carrots, and 8 lbs. of hay daily. 

-500. No ultimate analysis appears to have been ma-3e. The 
organic matter, ash, and nitrogen have been found to vary as 
follows, calculated dry. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



229 







Boussin- 

gault. 

and 

Horsford. 


Voelcker. 


Way. 


Fromberg. 




Root. 


Root. 


Top. 


Root. 


Top. 


Organic matter, 
Ash, 

Nitrogen, 

Wnter. 


1.34 
to 
3.61 


93.710 
6.290 

R8.260 


93.5 
6.50 


81.3 

18.7 


90.5 
9.49 


84.(1 
15.4 



A. 


B. 


88.260 


82.050 


0.59G 


1.280 


1C.399 


15.738 


0.745 


0.932 



501. Proximate analysis of fresh white Belgian carrot (A,) 
compared with the fresh parsnip, (B,) grown on same sc>ils : — 
(Voelcker, 1852.J 

Water, ... 

Organic matter, containing nitrogen. 
Organic reatter, fitted fortlie support of 

respiration and formation of fat, 
Inorganic sub.stances. 

In round nurabars, carrots may be assumed to contain about 
88 per cent, of water, and 12 per cent, of solid matter. 

502. Proximate analyses of the fresh (A) and dried (B) white 
Belgian carrots, ( Voelcker^) at 1 12° F. 



Water, 

Celhilar fibre. 

Inorganic matters attached to fibre, - 

Sugar, ... 

Salts soluble in alcohol, 

Gum and pectin. 

Inorganic salts insoluble in alcohol, - 

Soluble casein, 

Insoluble protein compounds, 

od, 

Nitrogen, in state of ammoniacal salts. 



503. Inorganic analysis of the white Belgian can-ot (A,) 
{ Way,) and of the parsnip, (B,) (Richardson.) 



A. 


B. 


- 87.338 
3.471 




27.412 


0.145 


1.145 


6.544 


51.682 


0.409 


3.230 


0.885 


6.98') 


0.293 


2.314 


0.498 


3.934 


0.169 


1334 


0.203 


1.604 


0.008 


0.063 



A. 


B. 


1.19 


4.10 


8.55 


18.66 


6.55 


6.50 


17.30 




8.83 


11.43 


3.96 


9 94 


1.10 




32.44 


36.12 


13.52 


3.11 


6.50 


5.54 


. 


3.71 



230 AORICULTURAl TEXT-BOOK. 

Silica, - - - - 

Phosphoric acid ... 

Sulphuric acid, 

Carbonic acid, ... 

Liine, - - 

Magnesia, - . - 

Peroxide of iron, 

Potash, .... 

Soda, 

Chloride of sodium, - - - 

Phosphate of iron, 

504. Dr. Voelcker {Jour. Royal Agricultural Sociefy of Englarkd, Vol. 
xiii, p. 395,) thus compares the Tvhite canots and parsnips to. ether : — 
1. There is a general resemblance in the composition of both roots. 2. 
Parsnips contain less sugar than carrots, the deficiency of which is re- 
placed by starch, not occurring in carrots. 3. Carrots contain an average 
of 12 per cent, of solid substances, parsnips 18 per rent. Thus parsni| 8 
will be found much more nutritious than carrots. 4. The flesh-forming 
constituent of parsnips is greater than that of carrots. Parsnips are 
about as rich in albmninous compounds as mangolds. Thus fresh 
parsnips contain 1.30 per cent, and dry, 7 25 per cent of flesh forming 
constituents ; the above carrots, fresh, 612 per cut, and dry. 5.46 
percent, of the same. Parsnips also contain more nitrogen in the form 
of ammoniacal salt.s. 5. Parsnips contain a double proportion oi fatty 
matters. 6. The difference in the relative proportions of cellular fibre in 
both roots is very great. The cellular fibre, occurring in carrots, par- 
snips, turnips, mangolds, ifec, must not be regarded as useless in the 
animal economy ; for there can be little doubt that the soft and young 
fibres of these roots are readily converted in the stomach of animals into 
gum and sugar, and applied in the system to feed the respiration, or for 
the formation of fat. 7. Parsnips po.ssess greater value tlian white Bel* 
gian carrots as a feeding or fattening ii-aterial. Parsnips are, indeed 
very valuable as an article! of food ; they are liked by cattle, and highly 
esteemed by Continental farmers for fattening stock. Moreover they 
stand the frost better than any other root-crop cultivated in England. 

505. Carrots require greater care in cultivation, than any 
other plant of the sort. The soil must be Hght, sandy, rich, and 
fertile to the depth of at least a foot, to produce good crops. 
Freedom from weeds is also very essential, as the young plant 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 231 

id delicate, and at firet grows slowly. The ground should be 
plowed and prepared, as far as possible, in the fall, and the seed 
sown in spring, as early as the climate will permit : — Thaer says, 
♦* even before the winter is over, and while the snow remains on 
the ground," in Prussia. Manure adds much to the yield, but 
if dung be used, it ought to be well rotted or composted ; or 
raw manure may be plowed in, in the fall, and compost dragged 
in, in the spring previous to sowing. In Scotland, it is apphed 
at the rate of 25 tons to the acre, and placed in the drills imme- 
diately below the seed, (Stephens.) 

50G. The seed should be fresh, for if two years old it fre- 
quently fails. From 3^^ to 6 lbs. to the acre are required. As 
it germinates slowly, at the ordinary spring temperature, the fol- 
lowing process is recommended. Enclose the quantity wanted 
in a bag, and soak in water for 48 hours — and this 8 or 9 days 
before sowing. After soaking, spread the seed about a foot in 
thickness on the barn floor, and germination will take place in 
6 or 7 days. When the seed is observed to be " chipped," it 
should be sown, being previously mixed with fine dry sand, to 
about 4 pecks to the acre, seed and sand together. By drill is 
the best mode of sowing, the ground being previously rolled, 
and rendered very smooth; but it may be sown by hand, rows 
being previously marked out, and the seed covered with a hoe. 
Broad-casting would require so much expense in weeding, as to 
be entirely inapplicable. Seed dealers now prepare carrot seed 
by rubbing otf the hairs or points; but where this is not done 
the seed may be separated by mixing intimately with sand or 
ashes; or rubbing forcibly between the hands. The seed should 
be slightly covered. In wet weather, it will penetrate the 
ground spontaneously. The rows or diills should be about 20 
inches, and the plants 6 to 8 inches apai-t, according to the size 
of the variety. In such roots, nothing is gained by crowding, 
as much being lost in size, as is gained in number. 

507. When the carrots show themselves, they should be raked, 



232 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

hoed, and thinned ; the hoeing must be repeated at least twice. 
When sufficiently large, so as not to b^ injured, the cultivator 
may be run between them, and the weeds kept down till the 
leaves cover the ground. 

508. The leaves are of little value for feeding stock, cattle not 
liking them. Carrots may be dug with an iron fork, or by a 
blunt plow, as is recommended for parsnips, the tops being cut 
off. They are not injured by moderate frost, but when severely 
frozen they are apt to rot as they thaw. On the other hand, 
when put in large heaps, and kept very warm, they soon fer- 
ment and rot. The safest mode is to place them in layers alter- 
nately with straw, in cellars or heaps, ventillation being allowed 
till the approach of severe cold, when the heaps must be covered 
with straw or earth. 

509. The following is the cost of raising a crop of one acre of carrots, 
at Fredonia, Chautauque county, New York, in 1848, on green sward 
turned under, rolled down, and harrowed with a fine harrow, and sowed 
on top of the sod, May 4tli. ( Trans, of N. Y. Agricul. Soc'y. vol. viii. 
p. 327.) 

Plowing and harrowinjr l'^ dsiys, team $1.25 $1.S8 

Raking and sowincf 10 days @62>3 cents, 6.25 

Uceing nnd weeding 16 " " " 10.0 

do second time 10" " " .6.25 

Marvesting 33" " " 20.63 

4nisSeed 40 " 1.60 

Interest on land 3.50 

$50.11 
996 bushels carrcts at I2}i cents, 120.75 

Profit, 870.64 

70_^2 days of man's labor, and IJ^^ days of horse labor upon one acie 
of land. Twelve and a half cents per bushel is apparently a very high 
price, when the true nutritive value, and the quantity of water con- 
tained are compared with the price of oats, buckwheat, or some other 
roots.* 

•If Oats are worth 37,'2 cents per bushel. Carrots are evidently too dear at 12>a 
cents, if the following mode of estimating the value of food is correct. We take equal 
weights of the two vegetables to be compared and find the equivalent proportions of 
nutriment in each. Thu.«: — 

Oats 100 lb - - - - Carrots 100 Jb 

Deduct water, 16 " - - • - 88" 

SolicU left 8i " • • - - 22 " 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 233 

510. The Carrot contains in place of starch, as also the turnip, a varia- 
ble proportion of a gelatinoas gummy like substance, to which the name 
of Pectin has been given. It is a tasteless solid, whic'i swells up and 
gelatinizes with water. It possesses feeble acid powers, combining with 
bases to form pedates. It is represented by the symbol C12; Hs ; Oio. 
(Solly.) 

511. The average crop in the the United States, with good 
cultivation, is from six to eight hundred bushels per acre. 
( Wiggins.) 

The followinsf crops of Carrots have be?n raised by L. Risley, of Fredonia, Chau- 
tauiiue Co., New York, allowing ol lln of the fre^h roots to the bushel. ( Pat OJi'e 
Reports 1850, p. 385.) Mr. R, took the Premium of the State Agricultural Society, 
annually, for 10 years ; so these may be considered above the average : 
1 acre gave 1590,'4 bushels, at a cost of $104 75, or 119)a days labor at G2.'2 cents. 

yi " 49f? " « 2-..7'5, " 

% « 82C>i " " 42.69, " 

1 " 966 " " 60.11 or 70,'» " " " 

1% " 2318 >i " " 5t.37 " 

1 " 95 Ui " ' « 46.63 " 

With the exception of the first and fourth, the particulars are not given. The Car- 
rots were sown in drills from 12 to 14 inches apart, and hoed as soon as the young 
plant could be seen. The plants were left from 2 to 4 inches in the row. In the cost 
of the first crop, S15.00 is charged for m:wiure, and $10,50 for "Improvement of land"; 
the rest is the actual outlay for labor, and seed without interest. The charge for wa- 
ges is unusually low. 

Ofthis 
Nitrogencous matter forms 16 percent, - 13.4ltt) I 5 per cent - 1 lOIb 

Carbonaceous matter " 77 " - 61.68" 88 •' - 19.36 '♦ 

Ash " 3 « - 2..'i2 " hfi „ . 1 qo« 

Husk « 3 " - 2.52 "I 5^ '-^^ 

Now, allowing that a bushel of Carrots weighs twice as much as a bushel of Oats, 
though 56 lbs per bushel is the usual estimate, 37,'2 cents worth of Oats contain over 
6 times as much nitrogenous matter as 12^^ cents worth of Carrots. 
15i " " carbonaceous " " " 

2 " " ash and residue " " " 

but as the nitrogenous matter is by far the most valuable for common food, the Oats 
greatly oi-erbalance the Carrots in value in this respect. In another point of view, 
i. e. the fittening qualities of the two, the dry Oat contains from 5 to 7,'j per cent of 
oil, while the dry Carrot contains only about \}i per cent.; so that in every nspfct, 
except the supplying fresh food, in winter, to the animal, the Carrots appear to be 
very much overcharged at that price. As has been already mentioned, Boussingault, 
experimenting on a horse, places the value of Carrots compared with hay as 400 to 
100 ; and hay being worth to the fanner for feeding or wool growing {not for sale 
into cities, in which case other elements of cost enter,) not more than $5 a ton, 
100 lbs. of Carrots would be worth about 6 cents or 3'4 cents per bushel. Still, in 
proportion to Oats, this is too high. We offer this view of the subject for further 
consideration. 



234 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

512, The Beet belongs to the botanical order of Chenopo- 
diacece, the Goose-foot family. 

Spinach. (Spinacia olcracea,) aud Lamb's-quarters, (ChenopoJium 
album,) belong to the same faniily. 

The original type of the garden and field-beet, is the Beta 
maritima, or sea-beet, a plant indigenous to the sea shore of 
many parts of Great Britain, especially where an argillaceous 
formation borders the sea-line ; the root is somewhat fleshy, and 
the leaves are gathered and eaten. The cultivated varieties are 
the Beta hortensis or cycla^ the Chard Beet, which is cultivated 
for its leaves alone ; and the Beta vulgaris, which comprises all 
the red, white, and variegated beets, the root of which is of chief 
value, whether used for garden or field culture. Of both these, 
there are very many varieties insize,color, shape of the root, and 
mode of growth. The field-beet is generally known by the 
name Mangel- Wurz el, (German for ^ Boot of Scarcity;'''') or 
Mangold- Wurzel, (which literally means, the ^'■Boot of the 
While Beetf) or it is simply, and more usually termed Man- 
gold. Field-beets may be again subdivided into those which 
are cultivated for the feeding of cattle, and those from which 
sugar is made, which latter contain more saccharine matter, and 
are generally white. 

Such sugar is now manufactured on the Continent of Europe, includ- 
iiig Russia, to a very great extent; and the quantity is annually in- 
creasing, as Chemistry simplifies and renders cheaper the process. This 
manufacturing is said to have been lately' introduced into Utah. Tho 
best varieties of sugar-beets are (o,) the Diseite, with a white root, skia 
and leaves, each root weighing from 25 to 34 lbs.; (6,) the St/esian beet, 
the s wee! est, but smaller; (c,) the YellcnvheeX, {d,) the Siberian beet. 
(For a very minute and accurate account of the Beet-sugar manufacto- 
ries of Europe, see lOiapp's Chemical Technology: London Ed., 1851, 
vol. iii., pp. 339— 416.) 

In 1841, the production of Beet-sugar in Europe was estimated at 
55,000 tons; in 1847 at 100,000 tons; in 1850 at 190,000 tons. In 1843 
France produced 40 millions of kilogrammes, (;=:45,000 tons ;) in 1853, 
80 millions kilogrammes, (=;99,000 tons.) TLis progress h.is been ow- 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 235 

inw to improvements, chiefly clipniical, each year in the manufacture. 
(Ann. of Scien. i)isc., vol. iv., p. 95.; Sillimaii's Journal, vol.xvi., N.S., 
p. 275.) 

513. The Mangold can be grown successfully for sugar-ex- 
traction at all places between 45 ^ and 56 ° N. Lat. in Europe. 
At Tobolsk, in Siberia, this crop is cultivated for food, but the 
root is supposed to contain a smaller proportion of sugar than 
than that raised farther south ; judging from the eifect of a 
warm climate on wheat, the nitrogenous matter should like- 
wise be smaller. The Sugar or Silesian Beet is more particu- 
lar as to climate, and consequently does not succeed so well in 
general cultivation. (Prof. Wilson.) 

514. The root of this plant is not strictly a true root, but 
a thick fleshy protuberance of the stem, to which the actual 
roots are attached. The bulbous portion of some kinds of beet 
is formed below the surface of the earth ; in others, it is above, 
e.xposed to the air ; and again, in some it is placed midway be- 
tween earth and air. Most varieties are spindle shaped ; some, 
long and narrow, like the radish ; others thicker, and more round ; 
some nearly square, with deep indentations; and seldom flat- 
tened. The varieties are also distinguished by the leaves, curled 
or smooth ; light or dark green ; fringed with red ; or entirely 
red. 

515. If a root is cut across, it will be seen to be composed of . 
concentric zones or layers of fibrous vessels and cellular tissue 
differing in color more or less according to variety. It will be 
remarked, that the leaf-stalks take their origin pretty deeply in 
the body of the bulb, and there form an extensive region called 
the heart, characterized by its greenish color and abundance of 
fibrous vessels; and, chemicalh', more analogous to the leafstalk 
than to the rest of the bulb. The actual bulbous matter is dis- 
tributed in a zone about this heart, extending below it to the 
point. The exterior, or skin, is composed of a peculiar compact 
cellular substance, containing mineral and nitrogenous matter; 



236 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 

immediately beneatli wliicli lies the lierbaceous tissue, contain- 
ing the coloring matter, an essential oil, and several other pecu- 
liar organic compounds ; then succeed the concentric zones of 
vascular and cellular tissue. In the cellular tissue is deposited the 
saccharine matter, the proportion seeming to he greatest in those 
cells immediately in contact with the vascular tissue. The 
germ (where the leaves enter the bulb) contains a large propor- 
tion of the saline matters, but no sugar. The cells contain 
neither starch, nor cjystalline salts, but only a liquid, consisting 
chiefly of dissolved sugar. The fibrous vessels, on the other 
hand, contain no sugar, at least those do not which are situated 
in the heart, but they contain salts in a crystalline form. Some 
25 or 30 distinct substances are found in this root. 

516. In Great Britain the root is held in high estimation as a 
fallow-crop, and as food for fattening stock ; and the culture is 
understood to be increasing. No statistics regarding it in the 
United States ajjpear to exist. We are inclined to beheve that 
this crop is annually becoming more common in the Atlantic 
States. 

517. Ultimate analysis of the root, (A;) and leaves, (B;) of 
the Mangold. (Boussingault.) 



Carbon, - » 

Hydrogen, - - - 

Oxygen, 

Nitrogen, - - - 

Ash, 

The leaves appear to possess a far higher value, both as a feeding, and 
as a manuring suhstauce, than is usually assigned to them. The pro- 
portions of water were about the same in each ; and the analysis shows 
that, in a chemical point of view, the leaves were three times ;is valua- 
ble as the same weight of roots would be. (Prof. Wilson.) 

518. Proximate average of several analyses of Mangold. 
(Knapp.) 



1 

42.75 


11. 
42.93 


38.1 


5.77 


5.94 


5.1 


43.58 


43.23 


30.8 


1.G6 


1.66 


4.5 


6.24 


6.24 


21.5 



AGRICULTCRAL TEXT-BOOK. 237 

Sugar, - - - - 10 

Soluble salts, pectin, certain azotized compounds, &c., - 3 

Waler, - - - - 83 
Woody fibre, insoluble salts, albumen, and other azotized com- ? 

pounds, - - - - ^ 4 

100 

519. Proximate analysis of Mangold — "Sugar Beet." — 
(Horsford and Krocker.) Root grown at Giessen : 

Fresh. Try. 

Albuminous matter, - - 2.04 11.5 

Su^ar. - - • 12.26 68.8 

Cellulose and other nitrogenoas substances, 2.56 14 6 

Mineral substances, - - 0.89 5.0 
Water, - - 82.25 

520. Inorganic analysis of Mangold. ( Way.) 

Silica, - - . 

Phosphoric acid. 

Sulphuric acid, - - . 

Caibonic acid, 

Lime, ... 

Magnesia, 

Peroxide of iron, 

Potash, 

Soda, 

Chloride of sodium, 

Per centage of ash, - - - 1 .7 0.886 

Payen found 1.11 percent of nitrogen in dry beet, of which one-third 
•was due to the albumen. Horsford, obtained fioni beet-root, "iphich 
lost in drying 82*4 per cent of water, 1.8 per cent of nitrogen. Under 
the very probable supposition that all these nitrogenous substances are 
of an albuminous nature, these nnmbere -would con-espond ivith 11.54 
per cent of albuminous matters, or 6.16 percent of the amount of sugar. 
{Knapp.) 

As will be noticed above. Chloride of Sodium (common salt) enters 
largely into the composition of the Mangold. Prof. Way gives the fol- 
lowing comparative table of the qu.nntity of salt yielded bj one ton of 
each of these plants : 



TopF. 


Hoots. 


1.99 


2.57 


5.15 


3.08 


5.8 


3.37 


6.49 


18.32' 


8.65 


1.95 


8.66 


2.11 


0.96 


0.6 


21 .26 


24.79 


7.01 


13.75 


33.96 


29.41 



Roofs. 


Tops. 


5.29 


12.82 percent. 


1.42 


11.25 " 


1.49 


6.15 



238 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Mangold WurUels, 

Carrots, 

Turnips. 

521. The average quantity of nutritious matter afforded by 
a crop of Mangolds of 20 tons, or 45,000 lbs. per acre, consists 
of 900 lbs. of busk or woody fibre; 4,950 lbs. of starch, sugar, &c; 
900 lbs. of gluten, <fec; and 450 lbs. of saline matter, or ash. 
No oil or fatty matter has yet been detected in an appreciable 
quantity. (Johnston.) 

522. This crop prospers on much heavier soils than either 
turnips or carrots ; but a light clay soil, containing a fair pro- 
portion of humus, and rendered rich by manures, is the best. 
Moisture, especially in the beginning of the ' season, is very ne- 
cessary, in order to develop its full size and good qualities. An 
excess of moisture is very rapidly absorbed by beet roots. 

523. In France, it is a common practice to soav the seed in a 
bced-bed, and afterwards transplant. In England, the soil is 
plowed twice in the fall, laid up dry in the winter, manured 
and plowed again in the spring. With us one plowing is 
o-enerally considered all that is required. Depth and friability 
are necessary in order to procure lai-ge crops, and the sub-soil 
plow may be used to great advantage. The land must be thor- 
ouo-hly harrowed, and the seed drilled at the rate of 3 or 4 lbs. 
per acre, not more than one inch in depth, and from 12-14 to 
24 inches apart. Sowing may take place as eaily as frosts will 
permit. The seed should be steeped from 12 to 24 hours 
in water, to cause rapid germination ; though if the soil and 
season are very dry, this may prove injurious. The subsequent 
cultivation consists of hoeing, and using the cultivator, keeping 
the earth fresh and perfectly clean. When well up, the plants 
must be thinned. Many leave the plants too close to each oth- 
er, which interferes with growth, hoeing, and cleaning. If plant- 
ed 2 feet apart, there will be a produce on the acre of 10,890 



AGRICULTUBAL TEXT-BOOK. 239 

plants; that is both two feet apart, lengthways and breadth- 
•ways. 

According to Boussingault, the culture of a bectare (^.471 acres,) of 
sugar-beet, requires, in France, the labor of a inan fur 113 days, and ot a 
horse for 35 days ; but much of tliis labor might probably be saved by a 
better system of management and improved implements. 

624. The peculiar organization of this root requires great care 
to be exercised in harvesting the crop, as the elightest injury to 
it is sure to be followed by a tendency to decay when it is stored. 
At the same time, it keeps well to a late period of summer if 
carefully stored without injury by frost, or rain, or mechanical 
causes. The beets which grow above the ground are best gath- 
ered with the hand ; kinds that grow underground require to be 
loosened by running a plow along the drill. The tops are then 
carefully cut off, without injuring the heart In Alsace, it is the 
custom to take away the leaves, and trim the roots upon the 
ground, the refuse, which is a valuable manure, being plowed in 
immediately. Or the leaves may be fed to cattle, though they 
are said not to be very fond of them. Fine weather should 
be selected for the operation, and especial care must be taken to 
preserve the roots from wet and frost. It is desirable that they 
should be exposed on the ground, for three or four days before 
they are stored away, in order that they may lose as much of 
their moisture as possible. 

525. Various modes of preserving them are used, such as (a) 
storing in pits dug in the ground, 4 to 5 feet deep, and covering 
with straw, and a thick layer of earth. To insure ventillation, 
narrow ditches or gutters are made in the soil under the heap, 
and chimnies are formed by inserting stakes to be afterwards 
withdrawn. Or (h) the roots are piled between two rows of hur- 
dles, set up at 6 or 8 feet apart, and then built up from the top 
of the hurdles in a long pyramidal form. A second row of hur- 
dles is then set all round, at a distance of 9 inches from the oth- 
er, and the space between the two filled with loose straw well 



240 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Tons. 


Cwts. 


Qrs. 


lbs. 


12 


9 


1 


19 


12 


10 


2 


23 


15 


1 


39 





pressed down. A good thatch is laid over the centre. In our 
Northern States, the most economical plan, when this crop is to 
be regularly cultivated, would probably be the preparation of 
root houses, or cellars under barns on hill sides. 

526. The crop varies very much according to soil, manure, 
and cultivation. In France, the average maximum is about 278 
cwts. per acre; the minimum 67 cwts. per acre. Boussingault 
gives, for the same country : — 

Pas de Calais, 
Department of tlie North, 
Department of Cher, 

or an average for the whole country of 10 tons, 9 cwt. 1 qur. 
13 lbs. per acre. In England as high as 39 tons, 13 cwts. per 
acre have been procured, by not applying manure directly to the 
crop; but 20 tons are considered a good average on soils yield- 
ino- 5 quarters (=46 American bushels,) of wheat to the acre. 
Wiggins gives the yield, in Delaware, of the Silician Sugar 
Beet at 800 bushels per acre, but a premium crop was grown 
in Monroe County, New York, of 1,489 bushels per acre, of 50 
lbs. per bushel (=37-|^ American or 33 English Tons,) at a to- 
tal cost, including manure, of about $22,00. (Trans, of N. Y. 
Agricul.Socy. vol viii p. 328. 

527. Cattle are readily fattened on this root. Late experi- 
ments in Scotland have proved Mangolds to be as profitable for 
this purpose as any other food that can be given. Steers weigh- 
ino- 935 lbs. live weight, consumed 120 lbs. of Mangolds per 
day, divided into three feeds, and 7 Iba. of straw besides. In 
100 days each animal gained 161 lbs. (Trans, of High, and 
Agricul. Soc'y. of Scotland 1853.J 

528. Manures act very variably upon this root. Ammoniacal 
manures increase the size and yield, but injure the sugar, Avhile 
organic manures add to the sugar, but the crop is smaller. Gu- 
ano is beneficial if the roots are intended for feed. Common 
salt is specifically beneficial, and should be applied in moderate 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 241 

quantities under nearly all circumstances. It appears to be best 
to apply barn-yard manures to tlie previous crop. 

An instance is given where an application of 3 cwt. of salt to 
. the acre increased the crop from 26 to 40 tons. 

The Beet at all stages of Its growth, including the period of its flow- 
ering, exhibits the sanae relative proportions of water and solid ingredi- 
ents; consequently half grown and full grown bulbs, flowering and not 
flowering plants, leave very nearly the same amount of dry residue. 
"With the period of bearing seed, this residue rapidly diminishes in quan- 
tity. But the 3ep.arate constituents vary in proportion. Thus, the Su- 
gar gradually increases with the growth, attains a maximum at a certain 
period before ripening, when it again diminishes, and disappears with 
the formation of seed. 

529. In England this root is frequently sold at £l (=|4.88) 
per ton, but the real value to the farmer for feeding, is estima- 
ted at about one half, or $2.00. In this country, where meat 
brings a lower price, the value is of course less. The improve- 
ment of the land, when projjerly cultivated, ought, however, to 
be estimated a.s a profit. 

530. No peculiar diseases or insects appear to injure this crop' 
in the United States. In Europe, there are several of both, 
and of late in France it has sufiered from a Rot similar to that 
of the Potato. 

531. A sort of beer is sometimes made of it, at a low cost. 
A good vinegar may also be procured by grating the root, 

expressing the juice into a barrel, and allowing it to undergo fer- 
mentation in a warm place. Six gallons have been made from 
a bushel of the root of the Sugar-beet. A cider-mill might be 
used for the purpose. 

As this root is the raw material of an extensive manufacture, which demands great 
scientific skill, its culture and peculiarities have been thorougly studied ; and more, 
probably, has been written upon it than almost any other vegetable product whatever 
except wheat. In these pages, we have only been able to give a compressed abstract, 
and therefore refer the reader to the following works among many others. Thaer's 
Principles of Agriculture ; Johnston's Agricul. Chemist.; Journ. of Royal Agricul. 
Socy. of England, vol. xiii.; Pat. Off. Reports 1849 ; British Farmers' Magazine vols, 
xxii, xxiii.; Knapp's Technology vol. iu.; Journal d' Agriculture pratique, Tomevii. 
Low's practical Agriculture, Stephen's Farmer's Guide ; Wiggia's American Far- 
mer, Sec, &c. 

16 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



SWEET POTATOES, (Convolvulus Batatas.) MUS- 
TARD, (Sinapis nigra and alba.) HOPS, 
(H umulus L up u lus.) 

532. The Sweet Potato, belongs to the order Convolvidaceoe, 
the Convolvulus or Bindweed family, of which the common 
Morning Glory of the gardens ( C. purpureus,) may be men- 
tioned as a type. The Yams of South America, and the medi- 
cine Jalap are also of the same genus. The Sweet Potato is 
biennial, growing with a large, long shaped bulb at the root. 

533. As an agricultural plant, it may be considered as pro- 
])erly belonging to warm climates, but can be cultivated pro- 
fitably, on suitable soils, as far north as Michigan. In New 
Jersey, large quantities are annually grown ; but in all the nor- 
thern States, the plant rapidly degenerates, and must be replac- 
ed by fresh bulbs from the South. In the southern States, this 
plant takes the place of the common potato, and is used not 
only for man's food, but for cattle, hogs, &c. It is there raised 
with great ease, and returns from 200 or 300 to 1500 bushels 
i)er acre, according to soil and climate. (Patent Office Reports, 
1845, pp. 452, 453.^ In this present article we shall confine 
ourselves to its culture in the North. 

534. The only analysis of this root with which we are ac- 
quainted is one made in the West Indies, (0. Henry.) 

Starch, 133 

Albumen, ... - - 9 

Sugar, ..---- 33 

Cellular matter, - , - - - - 68 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 243 

Fixed oil, - - - - - - 11 

Malic acid and salte, - - - - 14 

Water, - - - - - - 732 

1,000 

535. This plant requires a sandy, rather light, deep, and well 
stirred soil, which must be located on a dry subsoil; and the 
whole either naturally rich in organic matter, or rendered so by 
manuring. Stiff' clay does not suit it. Slips or sprouts, from 
the previous year's tubei's, are used for planting, and the.se are 
prepared in either of the following manners, (a^) In a bed of 
earth, make a box with .planks set edgewise, and fill in about a 
foot in depth of good warm horse-stable manure, over which 
spread two inches of fine rich earth; on this lay the potatoes 
so near as to almost touch each other, and cover them from 2 to 
2^ inches deep with the same earth. If the nights are cold, this 
bed must be carefully covered with straw, or some other warm 
covering, which is fo be removed during the day. There is a 
danger in making the bed too warm, and so spoiling the roots. 
They must be kept tolerably wet after the sprouts ap})ear : when 
these are 3 inches long, they are fit to set out. (b,) Din- a hole 
a foot deep, the size of the space required, and fill in with ma- 
nure from the horse-stable, sufficient to make a good hot-bed. 
It should be raised 10 or 12 inches above the surface of the 
groun.l, and the top of the bed should be sand and loam. Place 
the potatoes in rows, about 6 inches apart, and cover them to 
the depth of 2^ or 3 inches. Afterwards proceed as above. 

536. The ground should be plowed very deep, and thrown 
up in ridges or hills ; if the latter, such as common potato hills, 
after they have been hoed. This should be done immediately 
before planting, so that the soil may be moist and fresh. Set 
two plants in a hill, 2 or 3 inches apart, and make the top of 
th3 hill sufficiently hollow to hold a pint of water. If there i^ 



244 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

no rain, watering in the evening is requisite for a few clays. If 
in ridges plant the slips 8 or 10 inches apart. When the weeds 
begin to appear dig or plow between the rows, clean round the 
plants with a hoe, and draw a little dirt round them. When 
plowed the last time — about the last of July — hiU them up. 
If the vines have gi-own across the furrows, turn them carefully 
back, and afterwards replace them. No earth should be allow- 
ed to fall upon the vines ; and if they root, they should be pulled 
up, otherwise small and worthless potatoes will be produced at 
each root, and the main ones will be inferior in size. They 
should be dug as soon as the frosts kill the vines. 

537. There is gi-eat diiiiculty in the north, in preserving 
these tubers from decay during winter. The best mode appears 
to be placing them in moderately sized boxes, and keeping them, 
in a room sufficiently heated to prevent frost, at an equal tem- 
perature; allowing them, however, to "sweat" before packing 
them away. (See Patent Office Report, 1846, pp. 450-457. 
Trans, of N. Y. Agricultural Society, Yo\. viii, p. 426.) 

538. Mustard. (Sinapis nigra, and alba.) This plant is 
very rarely cultivated in the United States, except on a small 
scale ; most of the mustard consumed in this country being im- 
ported from England, where the manufacture is conSned to a 
very few localities. There are or were mustard manufactories in 
Philadelphia and New York, but the seed was chiefly imported 
from Holland and Germany. The Blacic mustard is preferred 
for this purpose, but becomes a very troublesome weed when 
cultivated. Of late years, the White mustard has been sown 
in rich soils in England for sheep feed during summer, for which 
purpose it is found to be profitable, but in the United States 
both the climate and the Turnip Flea are injurious to it. This 
species cannot become a weed, as it is killed by a very slight 
frost. It is occasionally used medicinally ; and in Europe oil 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 245 

is extracted from it at the rate of 36 lbs. of tlie white, and 18 lbs. 
of the black species from 1 00 lbs. of seed. (For a very complete 
account of this plant see Patent Office Report, 1845, pp. 312, 
397, 959-966 ; compared luith lb. 1848, p. 160.) 

539. The Hop is a native of the United States (' fi'r ay, j ; but 
the cultivated varieties, of which there are many, are believed to 
have been introduced from England, in which country it is like- 
wise indigenous. 

540. The only uses to which it is usually put are in medicine 
and the imparting a bitter principle to malt liquors ; and in the 
United States the chief field of cultivation has been New York. 
It was introduced into England from Flanders in the reign of 
Henry VIII, A. D. 1509-1547; and in that country it is grown 
chiefly in the counties of Kent and Sussex. The quantity pro- 
duced in New York in 1840, was less than half a million pounds ; 
in 1850, 2,500,000 lbs, which exceeds five-sevenths of the whole 
crop of the United States. 

Kew York also stands foremost in the productioo of alp, beer, ami 
porter. The breweries of the State produced iu 1850, 645,000 barrels 
of ale, tkc, being more than a third of the quantity returned for the 
whole Union. {Census Report Dec. 1, 1852, p. 75.) 

541. The hop is a perennial, the stems dying each winter, 
and being reproduced. The male and female flowers are on 
different plants, the latter only being of use ; but a few male 
plants are generally grown among the others. The flower is 
the part used ; the active principle, — a waxy yellow powder, call- 
ed Lupulin, — being produced under the scales of the strobiles. 

542 The following analysis of the Lupulinic grains, and of 
the scales, are copied from Fereira^s Elements of Materia 
Medica. 



246 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Lupuliuic grains. 


Scales. 


Payen, Chetallier, and Pelletam. 


Ives. 


Payen, &c. 


Volatile oi]. 


2.00 


Tannin, - 4.1fi 


Astringent matter. 


Bitter principle, (Lupulite,) 


10.3(1 


Extractive, - 8.X\ 


Inert coloring do 


Resin, - . - 50 to 55.0(i 


Bitter principleQ.lO 


Clilorophylle. 


Lijjnin, - - - 


32.(iO 


Wiix, - - in.oo 


Gum. 


Fatty, astringent, jrnmmy matters, ) 




Resin, - - 30.01. 


Lignin. 


ozmazome, malic and carlonic 




Lignin, - - 38.33 


Potash, lime, and 


acid, nialate of lime, acetate of J- 


traces. 




ammonia with 


ammonia, diloi-ide ot putatli, | 






acetic, hydroch- 


sulphate of potash, &c., - J 






loric, sulphuric, 

nitric, &c. Acidn. 

Lupuliuic matter. 




99.30 


lOO.OO 





543. Inorganic analysis of the Hop (A;) and Leaves (B;) 
and Bind or Stem (C ;) of the Hop Plant. (JVesbit.) 

The 2 lbs. of Hops, dried at a steam heat, lost 3 bz. of moisture, leav- 
ing 1 lb. 13 oz. of dry bops. These furnished 1282 grains of ashes, or 
nine-tenth per cent. — 9% oz. of leaves, dried, lost Ijg of moisture, 
leaving 8J^ oz. of leaves. These left 572 grains of ashes, or 161^ per 
cent.— 1 lb. 2)^2 o^- "f the Bind, dried, lost 1% oz. of moisture, and Icfl 
1 lb. 0% oz. of dry Bind. These gave 353 grains of ashes, nearly 5 per 
cent. 





A 1 B 1 C 


Silica, . . . - 


2150 


12.14 6.07 


Cloride of Sodium, 


7.24 


9.49 6.47 


Chloride of Potassium, - - - 


1.67 


9.64 


Soda. 


. 


0.391 


Potash, . - - - 


25.18 


14,95 


2435 


Lime, - - - 


15 98 


49 67 


38.73 


Magnesia, . - . . 


5.771 2.39 


4.10 


Sulphuric acid, - - - 


5.41 1 5.04 


3.44 


Phosphoric acid, - . - 


9.801 242 


6.80 


Phosphate of iron, 


7.45 3.51 


0.40 


Percentage of ash, (dried) 


9.87 13.06 


3.74 



544. Amount of inorganic matter removed from the soil by 
an acre of Farnham Hops. (N^esbit.) 

The number of hills to an acre varies in different localities. In some 
places lOOO, in others 1260, in other 1440 hills to the acre. The following 
is estimated from actual analysis of 4 hills, at the rate of 1000 per acre. 
{Nesbit) 



AQKICULTUKAL TEXT-BOOK. 



247 





1 


500 lbs 
tt> 


.Hops 
oz. 


14(>>ilbs.Lcavee| 
lb oi. 1 


239 lbs. Bind 
tb oz. 


Total Plant 
tb oz. 


Sdica, 

Chloride of Si)dicura, 

Chloride of Potassium, 

Soda, 

Potash, 

Lime, 

Magnesia, 

Sulphuric acid, 

Phosphoric acid. 

Phosphate of iron. 


9 
3 




9 

3M 
12 


2 

1 


2 
10 


9 k 
10" 
15 


12 4V<i 
5 7>./ 
1 11 
1 
16 Z% 
19 8)^ 
3 51^ 
3 10 
5 6>^ 
3 153^ 



2 
8 






01 
10 
10 

6 
14 

7 
10 


11 
7 
2 
2 
4 
3 


9'^ 
5 


2 6 

3 13 

6K 

514 

9H 
03> 


Total. 


44 


8 


17 


6 


9 111^1 71 91^ 



545. There are several varieties, of which the Farnham^ the 
Golding^ the Yellow Grape^ are considered the best. 

These are found to differ much in the proportion of their in- 
organic constituents, and consequently the above analyses must 
only be considered as an approximation as regards the species, 
while it is accurate as regards one variety. (See Stephen^ s Far- 
mer'' s Guide, vol. it, p. 45, 320.^ 

546. The soil peculiarly adapted to this plant is a rich, deep, 
rather adhesive clay, with abundance of organic matter, or veg- 
etable mould ; and a porous rocky subsoil. A dry subsoil is 
considered essential. The variety grown, and the quality of the 
produce depend entirely upon the character of the soil; and the 
peculiarities from these causes are almost as numerous as they 
are in Ayine -culture. In England, large quantities of valuable 
manure are expended on hops; such as bones, woollen rags, <fec. 
The following, for the inorganic portion, may be given as a sam- 
ple :^('J^o«rnai' of Royal Agricul. Society, 184:6, part 1.) 



Guano, 

Common Salt, 
Saltpetre, (or 
Silicate of Potash,) 
Plaster, (gyp.sum,) 
Superphosphate of lime, 
Pearlash, 



I. 
3 cwt. 
1 " 

\% " 



II. 

1 cwl.' 



1^ 

1 " 



y per acre. 



248 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

It may be laid down as a principle, that tlie more richly hops 
are manured, the better will be the quality and yield. 

547. The culture of this plant, the picking, drying, packing, Ac, de- 
mand a great outlay of labor, much skill, and more experience ; and it 
would be useless to attempt to teach the practical manipulations in our 
limited space. We must therefore refer the reader anxious to know 
more of the subject to other works, and recommend those who wish to 
to cultivate the hop to visit a plantation, and thus acquire on the spot 
the necessary knowledge. 

548. Hops are planted in hills; and long poles are driven 
in for the bind to climb on. They do not come to full bearing 
till the third season after planting, and will yield profitably from 
12 to 20 years. In the United States in a good season, each 
hill will average 2 lbs. of hops ready for market; but more fre- 
quently the produce is below that. Appropriate buildings and 
kilns are necessary for drying, as well as peculiar baskets, cloths, 
bags, &c. The price is subject to very great and sudden varia- 
tions ; and the grower must have a large number of workmen 
at his command, as the crop, when ready for picking will not 
permit delay without serious injury. (For a very complete ac- 
count of hop culture in the United States, see Wiggins' Amer- 
ican Farmer, and Trans, of N. Y. Agricultural Society, Vol. 
iv, p. 447, &c.) 

549. Cost of cultivating 2 acres of hops at Morrisville, N. T. ( Trnns. 
of K 7. Agricultural Society, 1845, p. 497.) The soil was a mixture of 
dark loam and gravel, well adapted for grass. It was well plowed 
and manured with 40 loads of barn yard manure per acre, and planted 
with hops and corn. The next season the account stood as follows : — 

41 loads of manure put in hUls, - - $30.00 

Kise of poles, ... - 45.00 

Labor of cultivating, . - - 40.00 

Interest on land, - - - - 14.00 

Harvesting and bagging, - - - 87,50 

$216.50 
Produce of 2 acres, 2500 lbs. at 12}4 cents, - 312.50 

Net profits, - . - - $96.00 



CHAPTER XIX 



ONIOXS, PUMPKINS, TOBACCO, CASTOR-OIL BEAN, 
LIQUORICE, UNCOMMON PLANTS. 

550. The Onion (Allium Cepa,) thougli visually ranked 
among roots (bulbous roots) is in reality a bud, formed at or 
underneath the ground, and whose scales are thick and fleshy. 
It is a biennial. 

There are several species known in garden culture as Garlic, (Allium 
Sativum); Racamho'.e, (A. Scorodoprasum); Cliive, {A. Schoenoprasum)f 
Leek, (A. Porrum); Shallot, {A. Ascalonium); and several varieties of 
the first (A. Cepa), as the Top onion (A. Viviparum,) bearing perfect 
bulbs or buds in place of seed ; the Potato onion, producing by the for- 
mation of young bulbs on the parent root, an ample crop below the 
ground; red, white, yellow onions, <fcc., &c. There are five speciis 
indigenous to the northern United Slates, (Gray,) vihich sometimes 
become very troublesome weeds in pastures, in consequence of being 
eaten by cows, and flavoring the milk. The medical plant Squills be- 
longs to the same family. 

55 L The native country of this esculent is unknown, but it 
has been cultivated from a very remote antiquity ; as we find 
it — in its different species — the common food of the Egyptians 
in the time of the Pharaohs, before the Exodus of the Israelites. 
It is now cultivated in all parts of the world. In Hindoostan it 
is considered sacred, and not eaten. In Europe, the Portugal 
onions are the finest. In the United States, the field culture oi 
the onion is chiefly confined to limited districts of Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York, certain towns 

•Found growing wild on Lake Superior, by Prof. Agassiz. Also a, native of the 
Alps, to the height of 7000 feet. {Jgassh L. Superior, p. 16G.) 



250 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

being celebrated for the quantity of good onions ■which they 
produce and export. What are not required for home con- 
sumption are sent chiefly to the West Indies and South Amer- 
ica. The census takes no notice of this plant. From 1835 to 
1845, 30,000 to 40,000 bushels and from 1850 to 1853 from 
125,000 to 150,000 bushels a year were raised in the town 
of Danvers, Massachusetts, alone; and though, to \hQ farmer it 
is rather an insignificant product, yet it employs many men and 
women in its culture, and adds largely to the comfort of the 
small cultivators of New England. Its moral effect is beneficial, 
as it teaches the value of manure, of clean, neat cultivation, and 
steady industry ; and it is said that onion-growing districts are 
always remarkable for their prosperity, economy, and intelli- 
gence. 

552. Onions do not appear to have been accurately analysed. 
They owe their peculiar odor and flavor, as well as their pun- 
gent and stimulating qualities, to an acrid volatile oil which 
contains sulphur. When eaten, the oil becomes absorbed, 
quickens the circulation and occasions thirst. According to 
Fourcroy, Vauquelin and Le Grange, the following is the com- 
position : — 



Acid volatile oil, 

Uncrj'stallizable sugar, 

Gum, 

Vegetable albumen, 



Starch, 

Woody filire, 

Acetic and pliosphoiic acids. 

Phosphate and carbonate of lime. 



Sulpbur, I Water. 

The nourishing quality probably depends on some unknown 
property of the oil, or an alkaline base, resembling creatine in 
meat ; and may be classed with such sustaining substances as 
chocolate, opium, &c., of the principle of which we are yet to- 
tally ignorant. The ashes contain alkaline and eaithy salts. 
This plant is used medicinally as a local irritant both internally 
and externally; as an expectorant, diuretic, and anthelmintic 
Garlic is the most active of the family in its properties. 

553. The soil should be mellow, dry and rich: it need not, 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 251 

necessarily be deep. A rich sand, sandy loam, or gravelly loam, 
•when well manured will answer. Onions do not appear to ex- 
haust the soil, and may be grown for many years in succession 
without deteriorating. The following is the mode of culture 
pursued in Danvers, Mass, (D. Buxton, Jun., in Farmer's Com- 
panion and IlorticuUural Gazette, Vol. ii, p. 86 ; iii, No. 3.) 

Such land is selected as would give a good crop of corn ; wet 
land will answer if the seed can be got in by the first of May. 
It must have been plowed from the sod at least three years, un- 
less a crop of carrots was raised the second year. Land may 
be rich and v/ell manured, and yet not bear onions the first year 
of planting ; afterwards the crops will be good as long as the 
laud is kept well manured. Six or seven cords of good barn- 
yard manure per acre are sufficient. Salt mud and " nnissel- 
bed " are valuable for a cliange. Ashes, particularly on new 
land, are beneficial. The land is plowed shallow, rendered fine, 
and rolled as early in spring as the climate will permit, and the 
seed is sown in drills 10 or 12 inches apart by a machine made 
for the purpose. With it, a man can sow two acres a day, and 
drop the seed thick or thin. New land requires 3 lbs., old land 
2^ lbs. of seed per acre ; the young plants being more likely to 
live on old than on new land. Weeding is performed with a 
wheel-hoe (which costs about $1,) two or three times before the 
plants are large. A man can weed 1^ acres per day. The rest 
of the weeding is chiefly done by boys, and the expence de- 
pends on the management of the land the first year or two ; it 
being of the utmost importance not to allow any weed to go to 
seed. The crop must be kept perfectly clean. When the stalks 
shrivel, and fall spontaneously, the bulbs have ceased to grow, 
and should then be pulled up and laid on the ground for some 
days to dry. If the weather is moist they must be turned. 
After this they must be spread in tlie barn till thoroughly dried, 
and then wove into ropes, or the stalks cut off before putting in 
barn, and the onioas, when dry, packed in barrels. 



252 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

554. In selecting onions for seed, take the largest and those 
%vhich ripen the earhest, as by so doing the crops will ripen in 
warm weather. If no care is taken, onions will soon run out, 
ripening late, and growing with large stifi" necks in October. In 
Massachusetts they shoidd be harvested and dried by the first 
of August. 

555. The average crop at Danvers is about 450 bushels per 
acre, though 600 or 7 00 are not uncommon, and occasionally 
1000; the wholesale price from 40 to 50 cents per bushel. An 
instance is given in the Albany Cultivator, where 1209-2- bush- 
els of carrots, and 630 bushels of onions were raised off the same 
acre. 

556. In Russia, the Potato Onion is cut into 4 parts, leaving 
the quarters hanging together at the root, the onions having 
first been hung up and dried in the snioke. Smoking, however, 
is not necessary. The quarters thus united are planted, and 
produce 4 fine onions. This course has been successfully pur- 
sued for thirty years, resulting in abundant crops. (Fat. Office 
Report, 1847, p. 188.) 

557. In Vermont, New Hampshire, and north Massachusetts, 
a maggot has, of late years, proved very destructive to this plant. 
It is the young of the Onion Fly, (Anthomyia Ceparum,) 
which lives in the roots and causes them to perish. It appears 
to be the same insect that destroys the onion in Europe, and 
has probably been imported. It lays its eggs on the leaves of 
the onion, close to the earth, so that the maggots, when hatched, 
readily make their way to the heart of the onion. They come 
to their growth in about two weeks, tui-n to pupae within the 
onions, and come out as flies a fortnight afterwards. It is said 
that the onion crop may be preserved from the attacks of this 
fly by sowing the seed on ground upon which a quantity of 
straw has been previously burned. (Harris' Treatise on In- 
ucts, p. 494.) In Scotland, the evil is remedied by dusting 



AGKICULTUBAL TEXT-BOOK. 253 

tlie soil with, dry coal soot once a fortniglit. (London Garden^ 
er's Chronicle, May 26, 1853.) 

558. Besides this, onious appear to be free from the attacks of insects 
and disease. It someliraes happens that many of the plants grow with 
thick stems and small bulbs. Tliese may be left in the ground during 
the winter. Many of them will stand the frost, and in the spring they 
may be taken up and set in a bed where they will grow to be good 
onions. 

559. The Pcmpkin, (Cucurhlia Pepo,) is the only plant of 
this family usually cultivated as afield crop; though in many 
parts of the United States, the other genera might be grown in 
the same manner with facility. 

Tlie Cucumber, (Cucumis satlvun) ; the Musk Melon, (C. Melo); the 
Water Melon, (C Citrullus); the Round Squash, (Cucurbita Melopepo); 
the Long Squash, (C. verrucosa); the Orange Orom6,{C'. aurantia); 
and the Vegetable Marrow, (C. ovifera); the Bottle Gourd, {Lagenaria 
vulgaris); the Balsam Apple, {Momordica Balsamtna), belong to the 
same family. There are two species indigenous to the northern United 
States, — The One-seeded Star Cucumber, {Sicyos angulatus) ; and the 
Wild Balsam Apple, {Echlnocystis lobata,) (Gray.) The varieties of thia 
family are exceedingly numerous, and tliey hybridize with great facility, 
even among different genera, as the cucumber and pun)pkin, itc. The 
Pumpkins and Squashes ate natives of America, and were unknown in 
Europe previous to the time erf Columbus. The early voyagers found 
thorn in common use among the Indians through the whole extent of 
country from Florida to Canada, and probably far to the we&t. Melons 
and Gourds are derived from Southern Asia. Persia has long been 
famous for the former. (Dr. Harris in the Trans, of the Amer. As9o. 
of Science.) In medicine, Colocynth, (Cucitmis Colocynlhus), and 
Squirting Cucumber, (^Momordica elatcrium,) belong to this family. 

560. Although this plant is so so generally cultivated, and 
enters so largely into the winter food of animals and men 
throughout the Western States, and notwithstanding that it ha.s 
acquired a national importance in New England, very little in- 
formation has been collected regarding it, and we are unable to 
meet with an analysis of it. Cucumbers and melons have been 
more fortunate, and we shall quote these as presenting a family 



254 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

resemblance. The pumpkin probably owes its chief value to the 
sugar and starch which the flesh contains, and the oil in which 
the seeds are rich. For fattening, the latter appear to be chiefly 
of value. This plant probably contains a less per centage of 
water, than any of the rest of the family ; but that per centage 
must still be large. There is a sweet variety, cultivated in gar- 
dens, which promises to be more profitable as food than the 
common sorts, though it does not usually grow to as great a 
size, and we recommend its adoption in the fleld. 

561. The per centage of water, dry mal,ter and ash, in the 
Musk Melon, (A,) and Water Melon, (B,) (Salisbury.) 

Per centage of water. - - 90.987 94 698 

do drv matter, - - 9 013 5.1U2 

do asii, - - > 0.271 248 

do ash in dry matter, ♦ - 3.007 4.b61 

36,900 lbs of Musk Melons, and 40,322 lbs. of Water Melons contaia 
each 100 lbs of inorganic matter or asb, as follows : — 

100 lbs. ash of lon lbs. ash of 

Musk Melou. Water Mi'lon. 

Carbonic acid, - - H 55 11.42 

Silicic, acid, - - • 220 1.21 

rbospborie acid, • - 25.40 14 93 

Snlpbuiicacid, - • • 3.90 1.63 

Phosphate of iron, - - 2.30 4.52 

Lime, .... 5.85 732 

Magnesia, ... 0.60 1.31 

Potash, - - - 8 35 23.95 

Soda - - - 34.35 30.63 

Chlorine, - - - 5.20 l.bl 
(See Trans, of Amer. Assoc. 1851, pp. 195, 221.) 

562. Composition of the Green Cucumber, (John.) The 
peeled fruit (A,) the fresh peel, (B.) 

A, B. 



Sn^ar and pxtractive, 1 R6 

Chlorophylle, 0.04 

Lisjnin with phosphate of lime, 0.53 
Mucas, with phosphoric acid^ 
ammonical salt, malate, phos- | 
phate, sulphate, and muriate ) 0.50 
of potash, phosphate of lime | 
and iron, J 

Water, 97.14 



.Solid matter, similar to ") 
that of ihe pealed fruit I ,r 
but containing much | 
Lignin, J 

W.attr, 85 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 255 

563. The pumpkin is generally grown in connection with 
corn, occasionally with potatoes; and rarely or never alone. 
Two or three seeds are planted with the corn in the hill or row, 
and thinned out to one afterwards, the plants being left from 6 
to 8 feet apart. No further care is requisite except to gather 
and store before frosts occur. 

564. The usual yield is probably from 3 to 4 tons per acre; 
but there are instances on record of 7 tons per acre among corn, 
and 15 tons per acre among potatoes. (Patent Office Reports^ 
1844, p. 144; 1847, p. 188.) 

565. There is great difficulty in preserving this fruit durino- 
winter; as, in consequence of the quantity of water it contains, 
frost readily destroys it; and even without frost, rot will occur 
wherever the skin is bruised. The best mode is to pack upon 
a tier of rails laid on the ground, under a warm shed, with straw 
between each tier of pumpkins ; and before severe frost occurs, 
cover thoroughly in all directions with a heavy covering of straw. 
This latter must be deferred as long as possible, in order to al- 
low the superfluous moisture to escape. 

566. It has been recommended to grow the Vegetable Mar- 
row in the same manner, to feed hogs and other animals. This 
is a very hardy and productive species, but whether it has any 
advantages above the pumpkin, in an agricultural point of view, 
has not been tested. An instance is mentioned where 20 tons 
had been produced on an acre. 

567. For fattening hogs, these fruits are supposed to be more 
nutritive if boiled. For ruminant animals, living on dry food, 
they are probably preferable in their natural state. Pumpkins 
increase the yield and richness, and improve the color of milk. 

568. The young plants are apt to be destroyed by the Cut- 
worms, and Cucumber Beetle, ( Galeruca vittata ; ) axiii ih^vQ- 
fore more seed should be planted than is required. Many rem- 
edies have been proposed foi- the injury caused by this Beetle. 



256 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

The cheapest and most effective is the dusting the leaves with 
common plaster ; or with boiled plaster (such as is used by ma- 
sons) mixed with spirits of turpentine, and dried. This appli- 
cation must be repeated after rain until the rou.gh leaf is well 
grown. Occasionally, this insect, and another much larger spe- 
cies injure the fiuit when ripe by burrowing into it to a consider- 
able depth. The only remedy is harvesting as rapidly as possi- 
ble. In some localities the Cucumber Flea Beetle (Haltica 
puhescens.) is also injurious to the young plants. 

569. Tobacco, (Nicotiana Tahacum) belongs to the Sola' 
nacece, or Nightshade family, and is nearly connected with the 
Jamestown Weed (Datura Stramonium) and Henbane (Hyos- 
cyamus niger,) well known weeds and medical poisons. One 
species. Wild Tobacco, (JV. rustica) is found indigenous to the 
Northern States. There are several other species, (N. repanda. 
Per ska, Ghitinosa, Macroj^hilla, dx.) the first of which forms 
the best Havauna cigars ; and the second, " the delicate and fra- 
grant tobacco of Shiraz ;" besides many varieties. It is a native 
of America ; and was found by Columbus to be in common use 
among the Indians in 1492. It was introduced into France in 
1559, and into England in 1586. It is now cultivated in most 
parts of the world, except Great Britain where its culture is pro- 
hibited by law ; but the tobacco of Cuba, Virginia, Maryland, 
Kentucky, and Connecticut is the most celebrated. No plant, 
perhaps, more readily adapts itself to greater differences in 
climate, or none, except the grape, changes more in its composi- 
tion and economical value. At the same time it is remarkable 
for the injurious and impoverishing effect that it produces upon 
the soil. The tobacco of Michigan is said, so far, to have proved 
inferior in flavor and strength; w^hile a valuable article is 
brought to market from Western Canada. 

In three or four years, the tobacco grown in Germany from American 
seed, acquires an aroma perfectly distinct from that of fine tobacco, nud 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 25V 

this it retains pertinaciously. Too rapid and luxuriant growth spoils 
the flavor of the leaf, which ou the contrary is heightened by pruning. 

670. The Virginians began to cultivate this plant very early, 
following the Indian mode. In 1611, it was first grown by the 
use of the spade, and shortly increased to so great an extent as 
almost to preclude the sowing of grain. Before the Revolution 
merchantable tobacco was a legal tender in which taxes and 
ministers' salaries were paid, and it almost became the currency 
of the colony. At present the culture in the United States ap- 
pears to be on the decline. In 1840, the total produce of this 
country was 219,163,319 lbs; in 1850, 199,752,646 lbs, show- 
ing a decrease of 19,410,673 lbs. 

The chief tobacco producing States in 1850 were: — 

Virginia, 56.803,218 lbs. INorth Carolina, 11,984,786 lbs. 

Kentucky, 55,501,196 " Ohio, 10,454.449 " 

Maryland, 21,407,497 " Connecticut, 1,267,624 " 

Tennessee, 20.148,9.32 " Indiana. 1,044,620 •' 

Missouri, 17.113,784 « | 

No other State gives one million of pounds ; Michigan re- 
turns only 1,245 lbs.; while Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, 
Delaware, and Minnesota produce none.* The principal va- 
rieties cultivated in the United States, are the Virginian; Large- 
leaved; Dwarf; Cuba; Common Green; Summerville; Light 
Burley, &c. 

571. Proximate analysis of the fresh leaves of Tobacco. 
(Posselt and Reinmann. 1827.) 

Malic acid, 0.51 

Lignin and a trace of starch 4.969 
Salts, 0.734 

Silica, 0.088 

Water, 88 280 



Nicotina, 


0.06 


Nicotiapin, 


0.01 


Bitter extractive, 


2.87 


Giiin with malate of lime, 


1.74 


Chloropbylle, 


0.267 


Albumen and gluten, 


1.308 



•From 1800 to 1S39 the whole quantity of tobacco exported from the United States, 
annually, was about 82,000 hogsheads. The Western States, during this period, never 
exported, on an average, over 35,000 hogsheads. In 1840, the West exported 40,000 ; 
in 1841, 5»,600; in 1812, 68,000; in 1843, 89,800; and in 1844, 81,200 hogsheads. 
This last was nearly as much as the consumption of Europe then demanded. From 
18 000 to 20,000 hogsheads of Virginia tobacco w»r« consumed at home. Above 
75,000 bogshtads were supposed to be raised in other conntries than the United 
Statei. 

17 



Potnsh, 


26.46 


Soda, - 


0.56 


Lime, 


27.87 


Magnesia, 


9.72 


Chloride of sodium, 


6.91 


Chloride of potassium. 


2.21 


Phosphate of iron, 


7.00 


Phosphate of lime, 





Sulphate of lime, 


7.14 


Silica, - 


- 12.13 


Per centage of ash, 


21.28 



258 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

672. Inorganic analyses of eiglit specimens of Hungarian 
tobacco-leaf. ( Will and Fresenius.) 

Hean of 4 analjsps. Mean of 4 araljees. 

12.14 

0.07 

45.90 

13.09 

3.49 

3.98 

5.48 

1.49 

6 35 

8.(11 

23.68 

{See, for particulars, Knapp's Chemical Technology, Vol. iii, p. 149, 
andJohnston's Agricultural Chcm. last Ed.) 

Among the constituents of the tobacco leaf, Nicotine is the most char- 
acteristic. This is a volatile vegetable alkaloid (Cio Hie Ns) belonging to 
a class of nitrogenous organic substances -which are, for the most part, 
gifted with a very energetic and remarkable action on the animal sys- 
tem. Pure nicotine is a colorless oily liquid with a slight smell of 
tobacco, which, when the liquid is heated, or mixed with ammonia, be- 
comes very intense and biting ; it has also a sharp irritating taste, a few 
drops acting as a poison on small animals. This substance, which gives 
value to tobacco, does not exist in a state of nature, but is a product of 
fermentation. The fresh leaves possess very little or no smell. When 
they arc distilled with water, a weak ammoniacal liquid is obtained, 
upon which a fatty crystallizable substance swims, which does not coq- 
tain nitrogen and is quite destitute of smell. But when the same plant, 
after being dried, is moistened with water, tied together in small bun- 
dles, and placed in heaps, a peculiar process of decomposition takes 
place. Fermentation commences, and is accompanied by the absorp- 
tion of oxygon, the leaves become warm, and emit the characteristic 
8 nellof prepared tobacco. When the fermentation iscarefully promotedi 
this smell increases ; and after the fermentation is completed an oily 
azotisod volatile matter, called nicotine, is found in the leaves. This 
substance was not present before the fermentation. The different kinds 
of tobacco are distinguished by having very different odoriferous sub- 
stances, which are generated along with nicotine. {Liebig Ag. Chem.) 
This fermentation begins during the harvesting, or even before, but is 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 259 

stopped by the process of drying. The quantity of n'-COtiDC in [he fresh 
leaves has been estimated at ^^^ ; in commercial leaves at j^j^ to j— j-^. 
It varies according to the locality in which the plant is grown, rendering 
it stronger or weaker, as follows :—{SchIosinff.) 



Per centa^e in the dry leaves. 
Department Lo", (France,) 7 9tt 

" Lot-Garoune, '• l.'M 

" Nord. •' 6.5S 

•' Ule Viliiine, " 6.29 

" Channel of Calais, '* 4.91, 



Per centapre in the dry leave?. 
Department Elsas, (France,) 3.12 

Virginia, 6.67 

ventucky, 6.<i9i 

Nlaryland, 2.29 

Havaniia, less than 3. 



Besides Nicotine, tobacco contains albumen, and a gluten-like substance, 
gum, resin, malic, and citric acid. 

It has been discovered by the " Tobacco Administration" in Pans, 
that the valuo, of tobacco btands in a certain relation to the quantity of 
potash contained in tiie ashes. Another striking fact was also di.'-closed. 
Crfrtain ceiebratud kinds of American tobacco were found gradually to 
yield a smaller quantity of ashes, and their value diminished in thesame 
proportion. {Liebhj A<)ricid, Chem.) The large quantity of ammonia, 
of lime, and tlie alkalios required by this plant is the cause of its so rap- 
idly impoverishing the soil, while it supplies no material for theproduo- 
tion of manure. The mode of cultivation, also, exposing the soil to the 
evaporating effect of the hot sun undoubtedly adds to the evil. In rich 
loams, where the solution of the minerals of the .soil is rapid, and wherd 
10 to 20 per cent of vei/etafele matter is incorporated in the earth, to- 
bicco miy be obtaine 1 for many years, but it is always an exhausting 
crop. It has been stated, thiit a crop of tob icco removes, in less than 
three moMth.s, i?0 Ihs. of mineral matter from one acre of land, without 
estimating the silica. The important mineral eubs^ances presented in 
H iva ma tobacco, were in ItiO parts ashes: — {Herticig,in LieUg's Anna- 
len, April 1843.) 

S ilts of Po'ash, - 31 Ifil 'nUs of Lime, • - 51.18 

Ma^ntsia, - - 4.U9iPhospliate8, - 9.(j4 

"The total quantity of tobacco retained for English consimiption in 
1843, was nearly 17,000,000 lbs. INorlh America alone produces up- 
wards of 200,000,000. Tiie combustion of this mass of vegetable mat- 
ter would yield abo it 340 000,000 lbs. of carbonic acid gas ; so that the 
yearly increase of carbonic acid gas f;om tobacco smoke alone cnnnot 
be less than 1,000,000 lbs ; a large contributi(m to the annual demand 
for this gas made upon the atmosphere for the vegetation of the world." 
< Ellit.) 

573. The manure for tliiscrop should be such as can rapidljr 
and readily supply ammouia; for uistance, guano, night-soil, 



260 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

liog's dung, well rotted slieej) and cow stable manure, Ac. In 
Europe, malt-dust, and rape-cake, either powdered or dissolved 
in urine are liigMy prized. The manure and urine of horses 
are objectionable as giving a bad taste to the tobacco. ( Col- 
maris Eur op. Agricul. ii. 5 4 8. J 

All the ingredients necessary to replace the ash of 100 lbs. of 
tobacco leaves, are present in the following mixture : — (John- 
ston.) 

Bone dust, - 15 lbs. i Carbonate of Soda, (dry) 5 lbs. 

Sulphuric acid, - 8 " Carbonate of Ma^^nesia, 25 " 

C;uboiiate of Potash, (dry) 31 " | Caibonateof liiue, (chalk) 60 " 

The leaf appears to have the power of replacing a deficiency 

of potash in the soil with lime ; while, as was before shown, the 

soil and climate produce a great dift'erence in the proportion of 

the inorganic constituents. 

574. The best soil for this plant is a light sandy loam ; or a 
light soil rich in organic matter, having a portion of sand mixed 
with it. Clay soils are not adapted for it. New or fresh land 
is better than old; and pretty steep hill-sides, if light and rich, 
are better for the production of fine tobacco, than level land. 

575. The following is the mode of culture pursued in Con- 
necticut and New York ; and in the West, north of the Ohio 
river, (a,) A " seed-bed" is prepared as early in April as pos- 
sible, for which the richest and best land, moist but not wet, is 
chosen. It is manured, dug deeply, pulverized, and rendered 
tine and smooth ; and the seed sown broad-cast, at the rate of 
one table-spoonful to the square rod, before the earth becomes 
dry. After this it is raked, but the seed is not buried ; it is 
rolled, or a man treads it in, rendering the surface of the bed as 
hara as possible. Weeds must be carefully extirpated. When 
the plants have leaves two or three inches long they are fit for 
transplanting — about the beginning of June, (b^) The field 
intended to be planted should be well manured, and plowed at 
least twice ; harrowed, and rolled, and left as smooth as possible. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 261 

The rows are marked out, 3 feet, or 3 feet 4 inclies, according 
to the variety grown ; and on these rows small hills are formed 
f jr the reception of the plant, at 2 feet, or 2^ feet apart. To 
makejine tobacco it is important to plant early, so that the leaves 
may be cured when the weather is warm and dry. If it rains 
at the time of setting out, advantage is taken to plant as many 
as possible. If not, about half a pint of water is poured into each 
hill, and the plants immediately set.* After this, the field is 
examined sev^eral times, and where plants are dead, or injured bj' 
the worm, others are set in. (c,) As soon as they stand well, 
they are either carefully hoed and the vacant places filled with 
new plants, or the cultivator is merely passed between the rows. 
After this the plants are kept clean with cultivator and hoe, be- 
ing hoed three or four times without hilling. The plants are 
frequently and thoroughly examined for the tobacco worms ; and 
they must be destroyed, or the crop will be greatly injured. 
(d,) When in blossom, and before the formation of the seed, the 
plants are topjied ahout 32 inches from the ground, leaving from 
16 to 20 leaves on each stalk. If there are late plants, in con- 
sequence of re-setting, break them low, and they will grow faster 
and ripen sooner. All suckers must be broken off. (e,) When 
ripe, the time of cutting — the leaf is spotted, thick, and will 
crack when pressed between thumb and finger. It may be cut 
any time in the day after the dew is off; left in the row till wil- 
ted ; then turned ; and if there is a hot sun, it is turned often 
to prevent burning. After being wilted, it is put into small 
heaps of 6 or 8 plants, and carted to the sheds for hanging. 
Here it is hung with cotton twine on poles 12 feet long, and 
about 20 plants on each side. It must hang luitil the stem of 

•It may be useful to mention that all young plants, either in garden or field, may 
be transplanted with great certainty of suooess by forming a deep hole with a round 
stick an inch in diameter ; insert the root in the centre of this hole, holding the planl 
with the left hand ; pour in water till it overflows; and immediately fill it up with 
fine earth dribbled in with the right band. Even cucumbers and melons may be safe- 
ly transplanted by this method. 



262 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

the leaf is tlioroughly cured to the stalk — from 6 to 10 weeks. 
It is then taken down, in a damp day (to prevent the leaves from 
crumbling,) and placed in large piles by letting the tops of the 
plants lap each other, leaving the butts of the plants out. It re- 
mains in these heaps from 3 to 10 days, before it is stripped, 
depending on the state of the weather, but must not be allowed 
to heat. When stripped, it is made into, or tied in 3 small 
"hands," the small and broken leaves being kept by themselves. 
When fit for market, it is collected in large quautities,andslightly 
pressed in boxes containing about 400 lbs. each. 

576. In some places in the South, it is the custom to dry the 
leaf by fires, a process which requires much care and experience ; 
and a peculiar class of buildings or sheds. The seed-bed is also, 
at times, burned or charred before the seed is sown; a process 
which, in certain soils only, enriches the soil by setting free the 
inorganic nourishment ; adds ashes, from the fuel consumed ; and 
destroys the seeds of weeds, but also much of the organic mat- 
ter of the soil. 

577. In Kentucky and Indiana, and some otber districts, hogshead* 
are used for packing. The liogshead should be 4'^ feet long, and 3}4 
broad in the head, with a bulge only sufficient ;o liold the hoops. Such 
a cask should holtl, without too hard pressing, which is injurious, 1300 
or 1400 lbs. of net tobacco. The cask should weigh 150 or 160 lbs. 
Ash timber is the best for the purpose. 

578. The crop varies fi-om 1000 to 2000 lbs. of dry leaf to 
the acre, according to the variety, closeness of planting, and soil. 
An average crop of 2700 lbs. has been grown on several acres. 
In France the crop is stated to be 4000 lbs. ( Colman.) 

579. The following was the cost of cultivating one acre in Massachu- 
eettsin 1845: 

Interst on land, .... $15.00 

10 cart« of manure. @ $2.50 2.S.00 1 , 5 ^^ 
Carting and spreading, 5.00 j ' 

Plowing twice, _ . - • - 3.C0 

Harrowing aud marking. • - - - l.OO 

Sfven thousand tobacco plantg, ... - 3.5(* 

Holding and setting, . - - - 3.04 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 263 

Hoeing 4 times, ..... 5.00 

Securing and killing wormi, ... 2.00 

Topping and securing, .... 4.0O 

Cutting and hanging to dry, ... 4.00 

Shipping and packing, .... 5.0O 

Rent of drjring shed, .... 4.00 

Freight, ..... 3.00 

567.50 
Produce 2000 lbs. @ 8 cents, 160.00 

Net profit, $92.50 

580. The chief disease which affects the tobacco leaf is the 
" spot" or " firing," believed to be owing to rot. It appears when 
there is too much rain ; and is more liable to occur on sandy 
soils, than on those that are " stiff, red and thirsty." We sus- 
pect that it is owing to too rapid an absorption of some material 
from the soil, during wet weather; and that it resembles the 
" curl" of the Peach-tree leaf under similar circumstances. The 
practical cure is said to be deep plowing between the rows as 
soon as it appears. A careful analysis of the leaf would proba- 
bly show a change in the proportion of some inorganic constitu- 
ents. 

581. The only insects usually liable to injure this plant, are a 
Cut-worm, and the Tobacco-worm ; the latter follows this crop 
wherever it is cultivated. Dr. Harris does appear to mention it. 
The worms attack the plant twice in a season, first when the 
latter are one third or one half grown, and again when the to- 
bacco is ready for cutting. The most effectual remedy is gath- 
ering them by hand and killing them ; but Turkeys are found 
of groat assistance in destroying these insects : they eat, and kill 
thousands which they do not eat. The first brood may be rea- 
dily destroyed by Turkeis, but when the second one appears 
the tobacco is generally so large that Turkies do but little good. 
(See Farmer's Library for 1848,/or a full account of this 
Insect.) 

582. To save the seed, allow a few of the strongest plants to 
produce their flowers. Each plant will ripen, in September, as 



264 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-I^OOK. 

much seed as may be necessary for stocking half a dozen 
acres. 

(For further information on this extensive subject the reader is refeiTed 
to the various works on practical agriculture ; the Patent Office Eeporti, 
especially the vols, for 1846, pp. 740-754, and 1849, pp. 318-326, con- 
taining a Prize Essay, by W, W. W. Bowie of Maryland, and for the 
manufacture, to Knapp's Technology, vol. iii.) 

683. The Castor Oil Plant, Palma Christi, (Hicinus 
communis,) belongs to the Euphorhiacece, or Spni'ge family ; — 
a femily which contains the Croton Bean, and many other med- 
ical plants. 

It is a native of India, but has been known from the earliest antiqui- 
ty, seeds of it having been found in some Egyptian Sarcophagi, and it 
was used by the Gieeks. It is naturally a perennial, attaining the height 
of 15 or 20 feet, with a thick stem ; but in cold climates it becomes an 
annual, not more than 3 to 6 feet high. There are many instances of 
perennial plants becoming annuals by change of climate, as is the case 
■with the common English daisey when transplanted to, or grown from 
seed in India. Tliere are 5 distinct varieties or species, differing chiefly 
in the color and pruinous condition of the stem, and the quantity of oil 
yielded by the seed. 

584. This plant is cultivated to some extent in Indiana, IIU- 
nois, Georgia, and other States enjoying a like temperature. 
The only useful part is the seed, or " bean,'' from which an oil 
is expressed, to be used in medicine ; for the manufacture of 
hair-oil by barbers ; for machinery ; and for burning. In its com- 
mon state, the odor and taste are exceedingly disagreeable, but 
these can be eradicated by refining. The American oil is of 
very fine quality, and has a less unpleasant flavor than the East 
Indian ; but it is often objected to by Druggists in consequence 
of its depositing a solid fat in cold weather. (Pereira.) 

585. No analysis of any value to the Farmer has been pub- 
lished. 

586. A good crop will yield 35 bushels of beans per acre, and 
the oil will be from 25 to 60 per cent according to the goodness 
of the seed and manufacture. The cultivation is similar to that 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 265 

of corn. The beans from which the oil has been expressed are 
said to form a valuable manure. They appear to contain a large 
amount of nitrogenous matter ; and the stems, roots. &c. can be 
plowed in again. 

587. Liquorice, ( OlycyrrMza glabra.) This, also, isa med- 
ical plants with a local agricultural importance, and it might be 
still further profitably introduced intx> the United States as one 
of the minor products of the soil. It is a native of, and cultiva- 
ted in the South of Europe, but prospers in England. Our an- 
nual import of it is said to exceed $250,000, and the demand 
is constantly increasing. The root, (the only useful part,) has 
recently been employed in France for the manufacture of paper. 
It was introduced into Georgia and the Carolinas at an early 
day, but the great attention now paid to Cotton has caused it 
to be neglected. It is a perennial, with long tap-roots extend- 
ing very deep into the ground, and creeping to a considerable 
distance. 

588. The soil should be a moist, loose, sandy loam; or dilu- 
vial of river-bottoms. If not rich, it must be manured with well 
rotted dung, ashes &c. It should be subsoiled or trenched 3 
or 4 feet deep ; and if sufficiently rich, throAATi into three and a 
half foot beds, including the alleys, in the centres of which the 
sets are planted early in March, 18 inches apart. If the ground 
is not sufficiently rich, trenches must be dug throughout the 
field, 3^- feet apart, from centre to centre, and 3 or 4 feet deep. 
When one trench is dug, it must be filled with earth from the 
next, well incorporated with compost, and alleys made 7 or 8 
inches wide, mid-way between the trenches, the earth being 
spread over them, so as to form raised beds throughout the 
plantation. 

589. The "sets" being procured, and cut into five or six inch 
pieces, dibble holes along the centres of the beds, 1 8 inches apart, 
and 8 inches deep, into which thrust a piece of root, and cover 



266 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

it up. The after culture, for that season, consists in keeping tlie 
beds perfectly free from weeds, by the hoe. In the fall, when 
the stems are decaying, they are cut down, and a light dressing 
of rotten manure is spread on the surface. Early the following 
Spring, dig lightly between the rows, taking care not to injure 
the roots. During the second and third summers, the only la- 
bor is hoeing to kill the weeds. 

590. At the end of three years the roots are fit for harvesting; 
which is done when the stalks are fully decayed. Begin by 
digging at one end of the rows, and so take up all the roots. 
When they are collected, the small side shoots are trimmed ofl^ 
and preserved in dry sand in a cellar for fresh "sets"; and the 
large roots are prepared for sale. They are offered in three 
shapes — the entire root — the same dried and ground to powder 
— and the inspissated juice. The sooner liquorice is sold the 
heavier it weiglis ; and the greener it is the more virtue it con- 
tains. An acre has sometimes produced 4000 to 5000 lbs. of 
roots, valued at $400 to |500. (Jour, of the U. S. Agricul 
Socy. July 1853, j^- 53.J 

591 . There are vaiious other plauts which have been recommended 
for cultivation in the United States, which have not yet been introduced 
to any extent, such as (a,) Madia Saliva, grown in Geimany for its oil ; 
{b.)Myagrum. SaLiva, Gold of Pleasure, also cultivated in Europe for oil ; 
and in England for Sheep-feed and oil, as it may be pastured early and 
yield a good crop of seed afterwards. It is perfectly hardy in the neigh- 
borhood of Detroit, beaiing the coldest weather, and being among the 
first flowers in Spring to blossom. In the South of Europe it gives two 
crops in a season. {See Patent Office Report 1846, page 314; Thaer's 
Princ. of Agricul. ii.b'iS. (c,) Tlie Bene Plant, ((Ses«?n(^m Orientale,) 
cultivated in South Carolina and Georgia for its oil, which is as good 
as that of the Olive for table use; andthe leaf is employed as a cure for sum- 
mer diarrhoea in children, {d,) Madder, {RubiaTinctorum,) and (c,) Indi- 
go, used in dyeing, the former remaining 2 or 3 years in the ground bo- 
fore harvesting : both of these require a ■warm climate. (/,) Dyer's 
Weld {Reseda Luteola,) grown in Germany as a dye ; the cultivation is 
represented as both easy and profitable, {g,) Dyer's Woad, {IsatistinC' 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 26t 

toria,) the seed of whicb,witb that of Weld, has lately been diistributed 
by 'he Patent OfBcc. The leaves are the part iisod. There are others of a 
similar character ; but in general they require too much time and labor 
to perfect, or the demand is too limited to attract general attention. 

(For a full account of the culture of .4/aoW(?r. Woadand Weld, in Flan- 
ders, see Colmaii's European Agriculture, vol. u. p/). 550-552 ) 



CHAPTER XX 



TEASEL. FLAX. HEMP. BROOM CORN. 
OZIER WILLOW. 

592. Tkasel (Dipsacus Fullonum,) is a native of Europe, 
and is used by the manufacturers of woollen cloth to raise a nap 
on the surface, by means of the fine and elastic hooks with 
which the seed pod is armed. There is a native American 
species (D. sylvestris,) devoid of these hooks, and therefore 
useless. 

593. It was not till about 1820 that this plant was introduced into 
field culture in the United States. It is now grown in parts of New 
York and New England, in sufficient quantities to supply the demand. 
The first raised in this country sold for $10 per thousand ; as late as 
1835, they were imported at a cost off 4 or %5 per thousand; from 1845 
to 1850, they were afforded as low as 75 cents to f 1 per thousand. The 
demand for them necessarily increases with the number of woollen man- 
ufacturies , and as these are met with in most of our Western States, 
this plant could probably be grown with sufficient facility and profit, 
on a limited scale, to make it worth the attention of Western farmers, 
for home use. 

594. Having a tap-root, the teasel requires a deep rich soil. 
A strong, gravelly loam produces the best and most serviceable 
heads ; and sward-land plowed deep, and well turned under in 
April is prefeiTed. After plowing, the soil is pulverized and 
made smooth and even. The land is marked out in rows 3 or 
3-|- feet apart, or a drill is used, and the seed sown at the rate of 
6 quarts to the acre, and lightly covered. This should be done 
early in May. In about a month, the field is thoroughly weed- 
ed with the hoe and fingers, and the plants thinned out to a dis- 
tance of from 4 to 6 inches. After this, a cultivator is used 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 269 

between tlie rows, and the earth drawn lightly around the plants 
with a hoe, thinning thena to a distance of 6 to 8 inches. Dur- 
ing the rest of the season, the weeds must be kept down, and 
the earth preserved mellow by the cultivator and hoe. Eaily 
the next spring the cultivator is again used, and earth draAvn 
around the roots with the hoe. In July, the blossoms will ap- 
pear ; and about the first of August the earliest are sufficiently 
ripe for cutting. This is done as soon as the blossom is entirely 
off the "bur," and before the seed is fully matured. It is necessary 
to go through the field two or three times to collect tliem all at 
the proper age, to prevent any being injured by remaining on 
the stem while others are beii^ matured. Cutting is performed 
with a large knife, held by the workman in one hand, while he 
seizes the teasel with the other, leaving from 3 to 6 inches of 
stalk, and throwing it into a basket. An experienced work- 
man will cut from 20,000 to 25,000 in a day, if the crop is a 
good one. When taken from the field, they are carefully spread, 
6 inches deep, on open floors, in an airy place, under cover. If 
the weather is damp, they must be frequently turned. When 
sufficiently dry, which is known by the seed seperating freely 
in moving, they are stored away, or packed in boxes for market. 
The yield is from 50,000 to 200,000 per acre, worth from 75 
cents to $2 per thousand. In Europe, they are sorted accordinof to 
quality, each quality being known by a peculiar name, and they 
are bound up in a curious manner. 

595. The only insect injurious to this plant is "the common 
white grub" which feeds on the young roots ; in some instances 
to such an extent as to destroy a whole crop. The winter, also, 
occasionally makes great destniction ; the plants being partially or 
entirely killed [in Oneida county, N. Y.,] by an open winter, 
accompanied by severe frost. Late frosts in Spring are like- 
wise injurious. A sort of "rust" is also destructive, caused by 
a long continuance of warm, wet weather, after the flower bud 
is fully formed. (Patent Office Report, 1850, p. SI 5.) 



270 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



596. The use of teasels has been, to a considerable extent, 
superseded in the United States, Avithin a few years, by the in- 
troduction of machinery to produce the same eft'ect. (Allen.) 

597. To procure seed, it is only necessary to leave a few of 
the strongest plants, till they are (juite ripe, dry them well, and 
thrash with a flail. 

698. Flax (Linumusilatissimum) is a native of Europe but 
has long been cultivated in this country. There are two indigent 
ous species in the Northern United States, (L. Virginianum^ 
and rigidum,) of no economical value. Two species or varie- 
ties are cultivated, the common, and one with a yellowish seed, 
lately introduced into Ohio, which is said to yield a larger crop, 
and to be in many respects superior. We have seen the seed, 
but not the plant. 

.599. The census returns of flax are stated to be incorrect, and not to 
be depended on ; but there is reason to believe that its cultivation is 
rather decreasing than otherwise, in consequence of the difficulty of 
preparing the fibre for market ; and the seed alone not proving suffi- 
ciently renumerative. 

600v Inorganic analysis of the entire plant of the flax grown 
in Ireland* (Sir E. Kane.) 

Potash, ' - - ► 11.78 

Soda, ' - • 1182 

Lime, - * ' • 14.85 

Magnesia, - ' - 938 

Alumina and oxide of iron, .... 7.32 

Phosphoric icid, ' •• - 1305 

Sulphuric acid, - - - 3.19 

Chlorine, - - - 2 90 

Silica, ' ' - 2571 

Per centage of ash, dry, - - 5 00 

601. Inorganic analysis of Linseed. (Johnston.) 

Ri^. Dutch. 

Potash, - - 25.85 17.59 30.01 

Soda, - - 0.71 6.92 1.88 

Lime, - " 25.27 8.46 8.12 





Riga. 


Dutch. 


0.22 


14.83 


14.52 


3.67 


125 


68 


40.11 


36 42 


37.64 




2.47 


216 


1.70 








0.17 


0.20 


1.55 






0.92 


10.58 


5 60 


4.63 







A. 


B. 


32.72 


38.23 


49.44 


56.40 


5.06 


1.25 


1.57 


trace. 


11.21 


4.07 


7.3 


6.04 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 271 

Majrnesia, 
Oxide of iron, 
Phosphoric acid, 
Sulphuric acid, 
Sulphate of lime, 
Chlorine, 

Chloride of sodium, 
Silica, 
Perceutage of ash, 

602. Inorganic analysis of English (A ;) and American (B,) 
Linseed cake. (Johnston.) 

Alkaline salts. 

Phosphates of lime and magnesia, - 

Lime, • 

Maguesia, 

Silica and sand. 

Percentage of ash, 

The alkaline phosphates are included among the alkaline salts. 

603. When the Flax plant is steeped in the ordinary way of 
preparing it for the flax-mill, much of the saline matter it con- 
tains is extracted by the water. This water, when evaporated 
(in Ireland) left a dry solid extract, which being burned gave 
42 per cent of ash, of which the composition was: (Sir i?. 
Kane.) 

Chloiide of Potassiam, - - 9.05 

Sulphate of potash, - * . 10.48 

Carbonate of potash, • - 9,05 

Carbonate of soda, - ■' - 31 43 

Phosphate of iron and alumina, - - 7_gy 

Phosphate of lime, - - . 5 OQ 

Carbonate of magnesia, • - 4,75 

Carbonate of lime, • . . g gg 

Silica, - - - 13.09 

The saline matter is not by any means all removed by steeping. 
Both the outside portion taken off at the flax-mil], and the pure fibre 
leave when burned a considerable proportion of a»h. 



272 AORlCULTUPwAL TEXT-BOOK. 

604. Ultimate analysis of Linseed. 

CnrboD, 

H}di()gen, 

Nitrogen, 

Oxygen, 

Asb, 

Water, 

606. We are unable to meet witli a perfect organic analysis 
of either the plant or seed, but the following results of 44 
analyses by Way, Nesbit, and Lawes, of English, American 
and Dutch Linseed, will give an idea of the composition : 

percent. 



(Thompson, 


) 


Fresh. 


Dried at 212 9F. 


42.51 




49.55 


6.22 




7 26 


3.78 




4.41 


26.35 




30.68 


6.94 




8.10 


11.20 







Water, 


7.6 


to 


12.4 


Organic matter, 


- 81.0 


to 


84.1 


Ash, 


5.44 


to 


11.40 


Nitrogen, 


4.57 


to 


5.28 


Albumen, gluten, and casein, 


22.2 






Fat or oil, - 


9.1 


to 


13.5 


Gum, dextrine, <fcc.. 


- 36.3 


to 


39.1 


Fibre and Husk, 


9.5 


to 


12.7 



606. The following recipes are given as special manures to 
return to the soil what is carried of by the seed (A ;) and stem 
(B,) of Flax. (Johnston,) 

A. B. 

Bone dust, - - - 144 lbs. 50 Iba. 

Sulphuric acid, - - 72 " 25 " 

Ciubonate of potash (dry,) - - 36 " 17 " 

Carbonate of soda, (dry,) - 6 " 20 " 

Carbonate of magnesin, - - 22 " 21 " 

2S0 lbs. 133 Iba. 
Linseed leaves (on an average) 6 1-2 percentof ash, so that for every 
100 lbs. of linseed harvested, 13 lbs. of the above mixture require to be 
added to the land. The dry stem leaves 5 per cent of ash ; every ton 
therefore carries off the land 112 lbs. of inorganic matter, to replace 
Avhich 150 lbs., of the above mixture must be added. If this be care- 
fully done, and if the fermented scutchings be returned to the land, the 
culture of flax will cease to be exhausting. The flax-fibre is almost 
pure Liguin, 



AaRICULTtJBAL TEXT-BOOK. 273 

Flax is cultivated in the United St<ates for two i)urposes, for 
the fibre for weaving, and for the oil. The States which chiefly 
grow it are Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, 
Indiana, Missouri, &c. Nearly every State returns, in the cen- 
sus, more or less. Were an easy and cheap mode of prepar- 
ing the fibre introduced, as there is every probability of there 
being, this crop would become both profitable and popular ; as 
the supply, both here and in Europe, is inferior to the demand. 
The oil, the cake, and the seed are exported to Great Britain to 
some extent. The fibre is believed to be principally consumed 
at home. This is one of the farm products which demand the 
assistance of the manufacturer along side of the farmer to render 
it truly valuable ; or the farmer has to relinquish his legitimate 
business, as a producer of i-aw material, and prepare the article 
for market, in its first stages of utility. Machines have lately 
been invented in Europe which entirely relieve the grower of 
the plant of the unpleasant labor of steeping, scutching, &c. ; 
and by one of these new processes, the liquor, in which the flax 
is prepared, is employed, with success, for fattening hogs, and 
c%ttle.* (Journal of Highl. and Agricul. Soc'y of Scotland, 
No. 42, 1853. 

In this place, we sLall omit any meulioii of the European raode of 
cultivating this crop, as being much too laborious and expensive for the 
United States, and merely give an outline of the usual way of growing 
it here ; nor shall we describe the steeping, &c., as these after-processes 
demand a practical skill and experincevt-hich cannot T)e ta\]ght by writ- 
ing. 

607. (a,) The character of the soil depends upon the pur- 
pose for which the flax is required : if for seed it can scarcely be 
t)o rich; if for fibre, it must not be such as will catise rank 
growth. The general principles are, to employ clean land, free 

*In the Weekly N. Y. Tribune of January 14, 1854, appears an advertisement of 
"Flax and Hemp Machinery" for pulling flax, and breaking and dressing flax and 
hemp. It is said to require but few hands and little power to operate it, leaving the 
Flax and Hemp line in better condition than has been attained by machinery hereto- 
fore in any country. 

18 



274 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

from weeds, as the flax-plant is delicate and easily smothered ; 
land containing mucli organic matter, as rich prairie ; and either 
naturally, or artificially abounding in lime. Lime, ashes, and 
well rotten manure may always be used to advantage, (b,) 
Plow deep, as soon as the crop is off the field in the fall. Where 
frosts are severe, it is advantageous to throw the land up in 
ridges, so as to allow entire disintegration. In the spring, plow 
again, four or five inches deep ; or if the soil is tenacious and 
weedy, plow twice in the spring. The object is to render the 
land really friable, and exterminate the weeds as thoroughly as 
possible ; and this may be done in any manner that the farmer 
finds the most expedient. Harrow lightly, (c,) Sow broad- 
cast, 2^ to 3 bushels per acre of seed, and harrow thoroughly 
both ways. With thick sowing the fibre is of greater length 
and fineness than in thin sowing; in the first case, the stem 
grows tall and straight producing little seed ; in the latter the 
plant grows coarse, producing much seed, and a very inferior 
equality of fibre. As thi7i and thick sowing are merely com- 
parative terms, experiments should be tried by each farmer in 
order to ascertain the best quantity on his own land. The seed 
should be deposited about an inch deep. Finish by rolling, 
which is considered essential, (d,) The field is kept clean of 
weeds by the close thick growth of the plant, or by hand-weeding. 
(e,) If intended for the fibre, much experience is required in 
harvesting ; as the marketable value of the straw depends alto- 
gether on the manner in which it is saved. The degi-ee of ripe- 
ness is of peculiar importance. In Ireland, the best time is de- 
cided to be when the seeds are begining to change from a green 
to a pale brown, the stalks for two-thirds of their height being 
yellow. In Europe, it is pulled by hand. In America the 
crop is often cradled, the scythe being from 18 to 22 inches 
long. In this case it is recommended to cut as soon as the 
blossoms begin to fall. If intended only for seed, leave till the 
bolls are generally turned yellow ; and treat like wheat. The 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 2*75 

after-process, wlieii fibre is wanted, must be learnt by expe- 
rience. 

608. The crop of fibre in the United States is said to aver- 
age 200 lbs. per acre, if tbe plant is allowed to seed; but 400 
lbs. if it is harvested when in blossom. The quantity of seed 
is from 8 to 1 5 bushels per acre ; and about 2 gallons of oil are 
expressed from one bushel. But we find premium crops in 
New York of 28|-, and 20 bushels of clean seed, and 567 lbs. 
of dressed flax per acre. 

609. Cost of cultivating 1.54 — 100 acres of Flax in Rensselaer coun- 
ty, N". Y., in 1851. The soil was a heavy loam, on upland , the crop 
next preceding was oats ; and the crop preceding that was corn ; on 
land many years in pasture. No manure was used. 

l}i days plowing', - - - • $3 00 

M " liarrowinpT and sowing, - - 1.00 

6 " pullinjr Flax at one dollar per day, . - 600 

2 " tlirashing and cleaning seed at one dollar per day, 2.00 

I day spreading and taking up, - - - 1.00 

1 " drawing in, and drawing to mill, - - 2.00 

li^^ bushels seed at $1.50, ... . 2.25 

Paid for dressing and marking flax, - - l.'i.96 

Interest on land, - . • - 10.50 



CROP. 

By 23 bushels clean seed at $110, - - ;g35.50 

By 798 lbs. dressed flax at 10 cents, - - - 79.80 115.30 



43.71 



Net profit, .... 71.59 

(See, also, another account in New York Transactions of Agricultural Society, 
vol. V, p. 338.) 

610. An interesting account is given, in 1846, of the grow- 
ing of Barley and Flax together, in the town of Earlville, N. Y. 
An acre of land was prepared for barley ; after sowing two bush- 
els of this, one bushel of flax-seed was also sown, and the whole 
harvested together. They were harvested in the usual manner, 
threshed with a machine, and cleaned ; — it is supposed that the 
seeds were separated by the different sized screens in the fan- 
ning mill, — The sale of the crop was : — 

30 bushels of barley at 50 cents, - - $15 00 

15 « flax-seed at $1, - - - 15 00 

$30 00 



276 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

It was believed that the barley crop was as good as if no flax 
had been sown ; neighboring fields of barley alone giving the 
same yield of 30 bushels. (Patent Office Reports \%^Q, p. 
728.; 

611. Linseed oil, being essential for painting, is in constantly 
increasing demand. The CaTce is greatly depended on in Great 
i.."itain for fattening stock, and adding to the richness of manure 
heaps. It is quoted at wholesale prices in New York at $28 to 
$35, and in London at $45 to 50 jjer ton. The best quality of 
the fibre in Ireland is worth from $250 to $300 per ton. 

Thompson, in his experiments on cows, found that Linseed- 
meal produced less milk and butter than Bean-meal. In feed- 
ing, too large quantities of linseed must not be given. About 2 
lbs. of meal, boiled for 3 hours in 3^ gallons of water, is a suf- 
ficient daily allowance, with other food, for an animal weighing 
800 lbs. The refuse of the pods is valuable as feed, 

612. In large sections of the West, it were of much importance to Ag- 
riculturists to influence the establishment of Mills for the preparation of 
fibre, and for oil-making. The two should always go together. 

Two patents for the preparation of the fibre are now used in 
Europe, and are represented as working economically, and requiring on- 
ly a small capital. They are Schenk's and Watt's Patents, an account 
of which will be found in the Journal and Trans, of the Highland and 
Agricul. Socy. of Scotland No. 42, p. 116. The Royal Flax Society have 
published much of importance on this subject. Not only is the farmer 
interested in the direct profit of the crop, but also in the fattening and 
manure-forming refuse ; and as the business of preparing cattle in the 
West, for the Eastern marketincreases, flax will become essentially more 
important to us. But above all, it brings the manufacturer in direct 
contact with the farmer ; and forms a market for his produce at his 
very door. It is not usually very advisable for the farmer to connect 
himself with manufacturing processes, but this is an exception ; and 
there are thousands of acres devoted to corn and povk-making, in conse- 
quence of the difficulty of reaching a market for coarse grains, where 
flax culture, with appropriate mills controlled by a company of farmers, 
would be found exceedingly profitable. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 277 

Imports of Linseed into tlie United States for the past five yenis: — 



1S49 


- 


- bags 85,9701 


1852 


- bags J 9 1.979 


1850 - 


. 


" 108,401 


1853 - 


" 228,737 


1852 


- 


- " 192,090 







Imports and exports of Linseed oil : — 

Imports. Exports. 

1852 - - bbls. 11,3641 1 1852 - - bbls. 12,427 

1853 - - " I7,056||l853 - - " 20,536 

{N. Y. Weekly Tribune, Jan. 14, 1854.) 
Oil meal is quoted in Xew York at $1.44 to $1.50 per 100 lbs. 

613. Hemp, (Cannabis Saliva,) is a well known plant cul- 
tivated, like tlie last, for the sake of its fibre, employed in the 
making of ropes, and coarse fabrics. It is probably a native of 
India, but it is now extensively cultivated in Russia, as well as 
in the United States, in Germany, and in other parts of Europe, 
in Arabia, Africa, (fee. It is of the same family as the Hop and 
Nettle, the fibres of both of which genera have been used for 
the same purpose. According to Prof. Gray, Hemp has become 
naturalized as a wild plant in this country. 

The Indian Hemp (C. Indica,) (which is the same species (Pereira,) 
as the above,) is well known as affording a resinous exudation, which 
is used in various forms, to produce a species of intoxication, among a 
large portion of the human race. In hot climates, the fibre degenerates 
in quality, while the narcotic ingredients incnase in quantity and in ap- 
parent strength. " This is another of the many interesting facts now- 
known, which show the influence of climate in modifying the chemical 
changes that take place in the interior of plants, and the nature and pro- 
portions of the several substances which are produced by these changes." 
(Johnston i7i Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. xxxvii. .A^o. 5, ^. 617.) This 
plant is employed to produce a naicotic effect by probably not less than 
two or three hundred millions of the human race in Asia, Africa, and 
South America. 

614. In the United States, the growing of Hemp is chiefly 
confined to Kentucky and Missouri ; ten other States producing 
trifling quantities only. In 1850 this plaiit was not cultivated 
in Michigan. It is supposed to be decreasing in the annual 
product 



278 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



615. Proximate analysis of Hempseed. (Bucholz.) 



Oil - - 19.1 

Huskifec. - - 38.3 

Woody fibre and Starch, 5.0 

Sugar <fec - -1.6 



I Mucilage - - 9.0 

Soluble albumeu (casein?) 24.7 

Fatty matter, - - 1.6 

Loss - - 0.7 



616. Inorganic analy-sis of Hemp-seed (A,) (Johnston.) and 

the Straw (B,) (Kane.) 

A B 

Potash, - - - - 21.67 10.99 

Soda, ..... 0.66 1.06 

Lime, .... 26.63 61.75 

Magnesia, • - - . . 1.00 7.16 

Oxide of iron, .... 0.77 0.54 

Phosphoric acid, - - - - 34 96 4.73 

Sulphate of lime, ... 0.18 

Sulphuric acid, .... 1.61 

Chlorine, .... 5.54 

Chloride of sodium, .... 0.09 

Silica, .... 14.04 9.92 

PerceDtag3 of ash, - - - -2.50 4.54 

617. Analysis of the Seutchings of American Hemp. (John- 
ston.) 

Alkaline salts, chiefly common salt and sulphate of soda, 3.32 

Phosphates of lime and magnesia, and a little phosphate of lime, 19.15 
Sulphate of lime, (plaster,) ... 3.26 
Carbonate of lime, ... 26.45 

Carbonate of magnesia, ... 2.80 

Insoluble siliceous matter, - - 45.02 

Per centage of ash in dry fibre, - - - 14.43 

618. In Commerce, Russian Hemp bears the highest value, being 
quoted in the New York Price currents at $265 to $300 per ton, while 
the best American only brines $180 to $220 per ton. The difference 
appears to be in the mode of preparation, Rus.sian Hemp not being 
carried to the fermenting point in rotting ; while in the American, in- 
cipient decay has already set in. In the latter country, two processes 
are employed, — "water-rotting," and ''dew-rotting." In the American 
federal and mercantile navies Russian hemp is cheifly employed for 
cordage. "Russian hemp, when kept moist and warm, will lose its 
strength in about three weeks ; — the American water-rotted in two 
weeks ; and the dew-rotted in from five to ten days." {Crook & Co., 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 279 

Mayttille, Ky. 1848.) The value of American bemp, however, is said to 
be rapidly increasing, owing to greater care and experience in preparing 
it for market. In 1845, the Navy Department decided tbat "American 
water-rotted hemp when made into cordage without t!ie application of 
tar proved to be greater in strenth than Russian ; ajcd the application of 
tar proved to depreciate its strength to that of Russian." Large quan- 
tities of Western hemp are annually manufactured into cotton-bagging 
and bale rope. In 1845 the quantity so consumed was estimated at 
40,000,000 lbs., sufficient to cover, 2,600,000 bales of cotton. 

619. The best land for liemp is tliat wliicli has been tim- 
bered with black walnut, buckeye, hackberry, and white oak ; 
or rich bottom lands. If sward land, plow in the fall, and again 
in the spring ; if fallow, one deep plowing, well harrowed, in the 
spring is sufficient. In Missouri, 1|- bushels of seed are sown 
broadcast per acre, from the 1st of April to the 10th of May. 
"When the blossoms begin to fall, (from the middle of July to 
the 1st of August,) the hemp is cut. If left later, the quality 
is injured. An impliment similar to the point of an ordinary 
scythe, is used for harvesting. The plant is cut as close to the 
ground as possible, and the tops are lopped off as far as the seed 
ends, and the stalks are either thrown into the shade, or kiln- 
dried. While cutting, the stalks are assorted according to size ; 
and bound up into bundles, 6 or 8 inches in diameter at the 
the butts, with two bands. A stick an inch in thickness, is placed 
in the center of each bundle, to facilitate handling. The bun- 
dles are then placed in properly prepared pools, or cisterns for 
rotting. Hemp, less than five feet in length, is reserved for 
dew-rotting. After a proper period, the bundles are withdrawn 
from the Avater, dried and stacked. After this, the mechanical 
operations of breaking, cfec, succeed. (For a full account of this 
subject, in all its aspects, see Pat. Off. Rep. 1845 and 1846, 
and the other volumes.) 

620. A species of wild hemp, resembling the Manilla, is said to be 
found in St. Louis county, Missouri ; but it does not appear to be dc- 
6cribed by the Botanists. (Tat. Off. Rep. 1846, p. 261 .) A " Centen- 



280 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

nial Hemp" cultivated in China is recommended as adapted to this 
country. 

621. Cost of cultivating 1 acre of Hemp, in Missouri, 1849. {Patent 
Office Report, 1849, j9. 328.) 

Rent of land, . . ^ ^2.00 

\)i bushel of Seed, • - - 0.94 

Seeding, - - - - 3.00 

Cutting, - - - - 3.00 

Shocking, - - - 0.50 

Spreading, .... 0.50 

Taking tip after rotting, ... 0.50 

Breaking 800 Iba. - - - 8.00 

Hauling to river, ... 2.00 

$20.41 
800 lbs. @ $5 per cwt. - - -40 

Net profit, - - - $19.56 

After this profit to the fiirraer, it falls into the hands of the merchant 
or buyer, who, after paying expenses to the St. Louis marl^et realizes 
as follows : 

Cost of 1 ton on bank of river, - - - $100.00 

Baling for shipment' ... 3.00 

Storage, .... 2.00 

Freight to St. Louis, - - - 8.00 

Insurance, - - - - 1 80 

Commission for selling, - - 3.00 

Weighing, .... 0.40 

Drayage and storage 1 month, - - 1-00 

$119.20 
Market value, - • - 125.00 

Net profit to merchant, ... $5.80 

622. Broom Corn (Sorghum saccharatum,) is cultivated 
solely for the purpose tliat its name indicates. It is said to be a 
native of India ; and that its introduction into the United States 
was owing to Franklin, who, finding a seed upon an imported 
whisk, planted it, and thus disseminated the plant. 

623. It is grown on a large scale on rich bottom lands in 
New York and Ohio, and to a more limited extent in nearly all 
the States. It prospers best on soil abounding ia organic mat- 
ter, damp but not wet. Heavy clays are improper for it. The 
ground is plowed in the fall, and again in the spring ; well-har- 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 281 

rowed ; and the seed sown by a drill, in rows 3^ feet apart, as 
early as the climate will permit. As soon as it is above ground 
it is hoed, and soon after thinned, leaving the stalks 2 or 3 inch- 
es apart. It is only hoed in the rows to remove the weeds near 
the plants ; the harrow and cultivator are then run through to 
keep down the weeds, and a small double mould-board plow is 
likewise used between the rows. It is not left to ripen but cut 
green. Some persons lop the tops early, and let them hang 
down to straighten : others leave it till nearly ready to cut. In 
this case, one set of hands goes forward, and lops or bends the 
tops on one side, and another follows and cuts them oft' when 
bent ; a third gathers them into carts or wagons. At the Factory, 
they are sorted over, and put in bunches, each bunch of brush 
of equal length. The seed is then taken off" by appropriate ma- 
chinery, worked either by hand or horse-power. The brush is 
then spread thin to dry on racks, in buildings. In about a week 
it can be packed away. The brooms are made in winter, at 
about the rate of 75 dozen per acre. The stalks are left on the 
ground to be plowed in for manure. The seed is used for feed- 
ing stock. (Albany Cultivator.) The average yield in New 
York is 600 lbs. per acre, at a cost of cultivating and securing 
the crop of $10 or $12. (N. Y. Trans. 1849, ;j. 54.; 

624. Cost of a raising a crop of Broom-corn in Oswego County N. T., 
1846. ( Trans. N. Y. Agricul Socy. Vol. v, p. 340.) The soil was a rich 
black loam ; the previous crop Indian Corn. The field low and wet with 
blind ditches. The area is not mentioned. 

25 loads of manure, ... $3.13 

Hauling and spreading same, ... 3.13 

Plowing 1 day, (vpith horses) - - 1.00 

Dragging yi day, ... 059 

Marking out ground for planting, 3 X l>i feet, - 0.50 

8 quarts of seed - - • - 0.13 

Planting 5 days, at 50 cents, - . 2.50 

Dragging between rows >a day, ... 0.50 

Hoeing and thinning, 8 to 10 stalks in a hiU, 6 days, - 3.00 

Dragging, .... o.25 

Hoeing 1 days, ... 2.00 

rabling the com, 5>a days, ... 2.75 




282 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Binding and hauling in, - 

Scraping of the seed by machinery, 

Cleaning up seed. 

Interest on land, - * 

Crop :— 1 1 55 lbs. brush a$4.50, 
81 " Seed at 18 cents 
Manure for next crop, 

Net profit, ....--- $10.40 

It will be observed tbat the wages and cost of horse labor are charged 
much lower than the present rates. 

625. When cultivated on a large scale, with appropriate buildings and 
machinery for the manufacture of the brooms, the profit is said to be 
much greater, than when the operations are performed on a small scale. 
At present, much of the expense incurred in the above account would 
be saved by the use of improved implements, and with better manage- 
ment. The goodness and elasticity of the brush appear to depend 
partly on harvesting at the right moment, and partly on the soil and cli- 
mate. It is said that some soils invariably produce brush of a brittle 
character. The seed.s, for feeding purposes, are estimated as equal to 
oats, but we are unable to find an organic analysis of them. (See Pat. 
Office Report 1849, p. 462.) 

626. Inorganic analysis of the ripe Broom-corn brush with the seeds 
(A,); and the quantity of such matter removed from the soil in a ton of 
Brush and Seeds, (B). (Salisbury.) 

Silex 

Earthy phosphates, - 

Lime, . - 

Magnesi.i, 

Potash, . . - 

Soda, 

Chlorine, . - - 

Sulphuric acid, 

Composition of tlie asli of Broom-corn seed. (Salisbury.) 
Carbonic acid, - - not determined. 

Silicic acid, - - - 41.975 

Sulphuric acid, - - not determined. 

Phosphoric acid, . . • 28.760 

Phosphate of peroxide of iron, - - 0.525 



A 


B 


32.50 


11.960 Its, 


- 36.15 


13.303 " 


0.40 


0.147 " 


- 0.10 


0.036 ••• 


27..32 


10.053 " 


- 2 37 


0.870 " 


2.50 


0.846 " 


ndetermined 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 283 

Lime, - - - 0.845 

Magnesia, - - - - 3.010 

Potasli, - - - 3.920 

Soda, - - - - 7.247 

Chlorine, - - - 0.245 

Organic acids, - - - 4.200 
—{See Pal. Off. Rep. 1849, j9. 473.) 

627. OziER Willow (Salix.) This plant is used for the 
manufacture of baskets, and other willow-ware. The cultivation 
of it is only commencing among us. Hitherto, some of the 
wild species, of which there are 22 in the Northern States, have 
been used for coarse work; and the imports from Europe are 
stated at 85,000,000 annually; each ton costing from $100 to 
$250. If attention were turned to this crop, there is no reason 
in either the mode of cultivation, in the climate, or appropriate 
soils, why willows might not become a very profitable product 
among us. At present, they are grown for market by a few 
individuals only, in New York, Mississippi, (fee. John Reed, of 
Staten Island, N. Y. is said to have been the first person in 
America who systematically cultiv^ated the ozier. 

628. The species and varieties, useful for this purpose, are 
very numerous. Dr. C. W. Grant, of Newburgh, N. Y., has in 
his possession (1854) nearly 100 varieties, more than 70 of which 
are from England. Several, which are esteemed in that coun- 
try, have failed with us, probably from their leaves being too 
delicate to withstand the scorching of the summer sun. 

The following species are thus characterized by Dr. Grant, (a) Black 
ozier, (Salix nigricans,) brittle, wortbless, and not a vigorous grower, 
(6) Round leaved Willow, (5. Caprea,) Color dark, quality indifferent, 
tolerates more water than any tolerably good ozier. (c) S. Viminalitt, 
in England, the most vigorous growing and generally cultivated; (d) and 
a sub-variety called Long-skin, both utterly unsuited to the climate of 
I^ew York, (e) Yellow Willow, {S. vitellina,) and (/) Huntingdon or 
White Willow (S. alba,) both moderately good ; the first as oziers, the 
second for hoops ; and greatly admired as ornamental trees. The follow- 
ing have been found the most valuable, as oziers, in New York, (g) 



284 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Long-lcaved Triandrous Willow, (S. Triandra,) very vigorous and pro- 
ductive, excellent for basket work, and especially for "split work." 
(A) 8. Forbyana, emphatically excellent in all respects. (»') Purple 
Willow {S. purpurea,) "If tbere were but one ozier in existence, ibis 
■would supply more of the wants of willow-workers than any other one.'" 
It is so intensely bitter that neither animals nor insects will touch it. 
In the West, a decoction of the bark would be valuable in place of Qui- 
nine. It is also well adapted for bands and withes for nurserymen. 
{j) A new species from the county of Suffolk, England; it grows with 
astonishing vigor and is in every respect valuable. (For particulars, see 
Farmer's Companion and Horticultural Gazette, Vol. iii, p. 13.) 

629. Willows will grow in a great variety of soils, especially 
if moist, but not profitably in any greatly unsuited to tbeir 
habits. Drained swamps, when brought into tillage, afford fine 
sites for willow plantations, or "halts." Deep, rich intervale, if 
•with a little inclination the better, having a retentive subsoil, 
with a warm exposure, and some protection from wind, would 
leave nothing to be desired. A deep rich bottom of sandy 
loam, that is occasionally overflowed, such as would yield ex- 
cellent potatoes, but subject to June freshets, — not so much ele- 
vated above the summer level of the stream, that by penetra- 
ting to the depth of 3 feet, the roots would find moisture, — 
would have no superior. Any amount of overflowing, not in 
the growing season, would do no damage, but increase the fer- 
tiUty. Richness of soil is important, great depth indispensable, 
and easy culture desirable and profitable. 

630. Having suflSciently drained, plow deeply, or dig and 
trench thoroughly, and prepare the field as if for corn. Then 
insert the cuttings, (which should be two feet long,) perpendic- 
ularly and firmly in the soil, leaving only 2 inches above the 
surface. Plant in rows 3 or 4 feet apart, and one foot between 
the plants. Keep clean from weeds, at least for the two first 
years, with the hoe or cultivator. At the end of the second 
year, the oziers will be ready to harvest. There is a difference 
of opinion as to the proper season, some recommending the 
fall, or winter after the stopping of the circulation of the sap ; 




AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 285 

others, the spring, when the sap starts freely and the buds be- 
gin to swell. If cut in winter, the oziers are lied in bundles, 
and stood up in cold water till spring. Every shoot must be 
cleared from the stool ; leaving, however, about two inches in 
length for the young shoots to spring from. The oziers are 
then pealed by a very simple implement. (See figure.) It is 
merely a round stick of hard wood, about 
an inch thick and a foot long, quartered 
about half the length of the stick, and 
the two opposite quarters cut off, so that 
it will leave a sharp edge on both the re- 
maining two. This tool is taken in the 
right hand, and the willow inserted in the 
slit with the left one, and pulled through, 
the bark coming off. Sometimes, a piece 
of split iron with half rounded edges on 
the inside, set in a bench, is used for the purpose. With this a 
man and three or four children ought to peel 400 lbs. a day. 
As fast as a little bundle is stripped they are cured by laying 
them in the sun till they are perfectly dried ; and then tied 
in bundles three feet round the butt ; being stowed away in a 
dry place free from dust. They are sold by weight. 

631. In Mississippi the " Italian ozier" is cultivated ; it grows 
on the uplands when well manured, to the height of 8 or 10 
feet in a season, clear shoots. Peeled shoots sell in Natchez 
and New Orleans, for 8 and 10 cents per pound; and cut green, 
with the leaves stripped, only, in September, for 2 cents per 
pound. The demand in New Orleans is greater than the sup- 
ply. (T. Affleck in N. Y. Agricultor, Jan., 1 853.) 

632. We have no data from which we can ascertain the yield 
per acre, or the profits, but the latter are said to be very large 
when once the " halt" is fully established. It is to be hoped 
that our swamp lands in the west will soon be turned to this 
use; as not only will the country become more healthy, but 



286 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

thousands of acres can be rendered profitable to the community 
while at present they are valueless. It is rather a reflection 
upon us that we are obliged to import such an article as willow 
sticks ; and so rapidly does the demand increase that it must be 
long before the market can be overstocked. 

In John Reed's case we are told that he received more pro- 
fit from a few acres of willow than from the whole upland 
portion of his farm. Medicinally, Salicin, used, and perhaps, 
frequently sold as Quinine, is prepared from willow bark. This, 
also, affords much Tannin^ the cause of its astringency. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



FRUIT TREES AND VEGETABLES. 

633. To enter fully into a detail of orcliard and garden 
plants would too greatly enlarge this volume ; but the following 
notes and analyses are given, the latter not being easily met 
with, and as being both of interest and practical value to the 
cultivator. The teacher will experience no difficulty in pro- 
curing such practical works in this department as will suffice 
for his purpose ; and more porsoas appear to be familiar with 
fruits and esculent vegetables than with agricultural. 

634. The Apple (Pyrns Mains,) {a,) a native of Europe, greatly 
changed by cultivation (6,) varieties very uumerous, as sour, sweet, 
summer, autumn, winter, (c,) propogated by seeds — grafts — budding — 
(cuttings) Cd,) American varieties superior : quality, and value de- 
pend on soil and climate (e,) cultivation, pruning, gathering, packing, 
and preserving during winter (f,) dried, a considerable article of com- 
merce, machines for the purpose, various, (g,) j)rofitabIe as food for 
stock, especially the sweet varieties; for hogs better cooked ; sour ap- 
ples said to dry up milcii cows, (A,) cider making; peculiar varieties 
for the purpose ; process and implements ; fermentation, spiritous, ace- 
tic ; mustard seed delays the latter ; when bottled, contains free car- 
bonic acid gas ; the use of a raisin in each bottle in assisting to form 

this gas, (i,) manures, bones, — sulphuric acid — ashes — plasler — salt 

lime — ammonia — wheat bran. (J,) Insects and diseases, (k,) the ash 
of fruit small, in quantity. 

635. Analysis of the Pulp (A;) and Skin (B,) of the Swaar 
apple. (Salisbury.) 

Percentage of water, - - 84.75 Gl.20 

" " dry matter, - - 15.2.5 38.80 

" " ash. - . 0.26 0.73 

Ash, calculated on dry matter, • - 1.705 1.856 



288 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

636. Percentage of water and dry matter in the Tolman 
Sweeting (B ;) Roxburj Russet (C ;) Kilham Hill (D ;) Eng- 
lish Russet (E ;) Rhode Island Greening (F.) 

B. C. D. 

Percentage of water, - - 81.52 81.35 86.31 
" of dry matter, 18.48 I8.G5 13.69 

Mean of the &ix analyses, per centage of wacer, 

637. Inorganic analysis of the above, excepting the Tolman's 
Sweeting; and including the Swaar (A;) without carbonic 
acid: 



E. 


F. 


79.21 


82.85 


20.79 


17.15 


- 


82.664 





A. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


F. 


Silica, 


1.750 


2.278 


1.693 


1.051 


1.412 


Phosphate of iron, 


- 2.237 


1.564 


1.838 


1.062 


1.277 


Phosphoric acid, 


14.083 


15.057 


13.922 


11.119 


11.664 


Lime, 


4.956 


4.857 


2.999 


3.263 


4.421 


Magnesia, 


1.786 


1.903 


1.379 


1.068 


2.211 


Potash, 


42.02 6 


34 958 


35.821 


38.323 


38.440 


Soda, 


19 296 


25.173 


25.826 


30.408 


22.781 


Chlorine, 


2.092 


2.300 


2 334 


1.848 


2.272 


Sulphuric acid, - 


6656 


6.889 


7.898 


6.684 


8.019 


Organic matter, 


5.139 


5.021 


6.290 


5.187 


7.503 



1000 lbs. of fresh apples contain about 827 lbs. water ; 170.4 lbs. or- 
ganic matter ; and 2.6 lbs. of ash. 1000 lbs. oi dry apples contain 17 
to 18 lbs. of ash. 

638. Proximate organic analysis of 1000 parts of fresh 
Tolman's Sweeting; (B) Rhode Island Greening; (F,) and 
Mean of the analyses of the six foregoing varieties (G.) 

B. F. G. 

Cellular fibre, - - 33.90 33.58 32.03 

Glutenous matter with a little wax and fat, 3.52 1.32 1.94 

Dextrine, - - - 28.96 32.07 31.44 

Sugar and extract, - - 99 .C5 76.37 83.25 

Malic acid, - - - 2.50 3.04 3.17 

Albumen. - - - 8.97 16.37 13.79 

Casein, - - 0.89 1.89 1.64 

Dry matter, - - - 177.79 164.64 167.26 

Water, - - 815.-20 828.46 826.64 

Logs, - - ♦ 7.01 6.90 6.10 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



289 



Besides the above, apples contain a little tannic and gallic acid.?, es- 
pecially the Russets. The Tolman Sweeting showed a ti ace of starch. 
A small quantity of white wax, and a respectable percentage of gluten 
also exist. These analyses were made in the month of March. 

639. Comparisou of the apple (A) with the ripe peach (B,) 
pear (C,) cherry (D,) and potato (E.J 







A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


Chlorophyl 


&c., 


- 


1.10 


0.08 






Sugar, 




8.3 


16.48 


6.45 


18.12 


0.25 


Dextrine, 


- 


- 3.1 


5.12 


3.17 


3.23 




Fibre, 




3:2 


1.86 


3.80 


1.12 


5.8 


Albumen, 


- 


- 1.4 


0.17 


0.08 


0.57 




Malic acid. 




0.3 


1.80 


0.11 


2.01 




Citric acid, 


- 


- 








trace. 


Lime, 




4.19 


trace 


0.03 


0.01 




Water, 


- 


- 82.66 


74 87 


86.28 


74 85 


79.7 


Gluten, fat, 


(tc. 


0.2 








0.3 


Casein, 


- 


- 0.16 










Starch, 




- 








9.7 



The apple, if of good qualitj', may be regarded equally, if not more 
rich in fat-producing products than the potato. The apple is also 
richer in nitrogenous, or flesh-forming, products; and its inorganic con- 
stituents are peculiarly valuable. (Salisbury, in Trans, of N. Y. Soc'y, 
vol. ix. pp.737— 743.) 

640. Inorganic analysis of a Sweet Apple Tree ; 19 years 
old. (Emmons.) 







Outside 


Heart 


Bark of 


Wood 




Bark. 


wood. 


wood. 


root. 


of root. 


Potash, 


0.44 


3.288 


2 75 


0.66 


1507 


Soda, 


1.53 


3.33 


1.62 


11.38 


21.99 


Chloride of sodium. 


0.30 


0.33 


51 


0.10 


0.11 


Sulphuric acid, 


38.39 


12.21 


2217 


30.83 


1.84 


Carbonic acid, 


49.56 


15.79 


38.98 






Lime, 


186 


15.56 


2 66 


1.00 


11.64 


Magnesia, 


256 


352 


293 


8.72 


016 


Phosphate of iron, ) 






I 


072 


091 


Phosphate of lime, - > 


3.60 


37.50 


24.40 { 


6.39 


1.3 96 


Phosphate of magnesia, ) 






) 




31.35 


Organic matter, 


3 35 


3.20 


3.60 


i.sb" 


1.20 


Insoluble silica, 


126 


0.45 


0.20 


2 86 


1.46 


Coal, 


126 


035 


0.01 


0.72 





290 



AGRICULTCRAL TEXT-BOOK. 



5.775 



641. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Early Harv'est 
Apple, collected September 30 : bearing fruit. (Emmons.) 

Silica, 

Phosphate of iron, 

Phosphate of lime, - - 

Phosphate of magnesia. 

Silica, ... 

Phosphoric acid, - 

Lime, ... 

Magnesia, 

Potash, ... 

Soda, 

Chloride of sodium, - 

Siilphjiic acid. 

Carbonic acid, - • 

Organic matter, 



4.875 
1.416 
trace 
5.125 
5.359 



rRorouTioxs. 



Water, 

Dry, 

Ash, 

Ash, calculaled dry. 



16 775 
36 398 

0.075 
13.179 
11.616 

0.060 

0.137 
15.200 

2.850 

54.341 

45.659 

4.194 

9.163 



642. The Pear (Pyrus communis,) (a,) a native of Eu- 
rope, cultivated from remote antiquity; (b,) at present, Belgium 
is celebrated for this fruit ; (c,) several fine American varieties ; 
(d,) propagated by seeds, (for stocks,) by grafting — budding — 
dwarf pears on Quince roots; (e,) requires a soil rich in the phos- 
phates, much more difficult to cultivate than the last; (/,) subject 
to several diseases, from the seed to matuiity, as Insed-hliyht, 
Frozen-sajy-blight, &c; (g,) ripened artificially in the house, to 
acquire perfection of flavor; (h,) brings high prices in market; 
(i,) Perry — manufacture (i,) manures, unleached ashes, bones, 
lime, plaster, salt. 

t 

643. Comparative analysis of the Sap-wood (A,) Heart-wood 
(B,) Bark of Trunk (C,) of the Pear Tree, and the Wood (D,) 
and Bark (E.) of the Root of the same. (JEt7wions.) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 291 

ABODE 

Water, - - 4J5.80 22.05 63.70 22.33 5880 

Dry matter, - 37.20 77.95 30.30 79,07 4G.20 

A>,h - - 0.20 010 1.99 0.40 3.26 

644. Analysis of tho loaves of the Bergamot Pear tree, (col- 
lected September 30, bearing fruit;) (A,) and of a Pear tree, 
(picked May 23, flowers just fallen,) (B.) (Emmons.) 







A 




B 


Silica, 


4 230 


Silicic acid. 


- 


1.750 


Diospliates, (witb 5 bases 


) 16.550 


- 




25.050 


Lime 


39.85? 


- 




.4.715 


Magnesia, 


5920 


- 


- 


4.500 


Potasb, 


8.793 


- 




18.9.50 


Soda, 




- 


- 


15.130 


CbloiiJe of Sodium, 


0.554 


. 


not 


determined 


Sulphuric acid, - 


- 4.464 






do 


Carbonic acid. 


17.125 


. 




11.560 


Organic matter, 


3.000 


- 


not 


determineJ 


Proportions of (A,) 










Water, 


- 


- 




56.138 


Dry matter, 




- 




- 43.862 


Ash, 


- 


^ 




3.260 


Do. calculated dry, 




- 




- 7.514 


For the orgajiiic analyis of th<^. 


fruit, .sec (S 


-) 





645. Quince (Fi/rus Cijdonia,) (a,) native of the South of 
Europe ; (b,) varieties few, cannot be eaten uncoohed, seeds me- 
dicinal; (c,) propagated by seed — cuttings — gtafts — layers, 
(d^) cultivation simple; fe,) injured by the Borer, and a worm 
that girdles tho twigs ^ (f,) manures, — barn-yard — salt — wool- 
en rags. 

64G. The tree and fruit do not appear to have been annlyzed. 
Souchay gives the following inorganic constituents of the seeds: 

Oxide of iron, - - 1 I9 



Potasb, - - 27.09 

Snda, - - - 3.01 

Li.ne, - - 7.69 



Phosplicrii'. acid. - 42.02 

Sulphuric acid, - - 2(!7 



Muijneaia, - - 13.0j jOhloride ot S idiutn, 2.57 

Silica, - - 0.75 



292 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

647. Peach (Persica vulgaris^) (a,) native of Persia; said 
to have been found cultivated abundantly by the Indians by 
Hendrick Hudson, on his first voyage, but never discovered wild 
on this continent ; supposed to be a c«ltivated variety of the al- 
mond (amygdalus communis,) ; (h,) in Great Britain requires 
artificial heat; (c,) varieties exceedingly muuerous; (^c?,J propo- 
irr.ted by seed — budding-— (grafting, and in New Zealand by cut- 
tings) ; (e,) cultivation simple, pruning ehiefiy confined to short- 
ningi'i] (/,J dried; ('^j^ fattening for hogs — owing to the Cy- 
anogen of the kerneH (k,) distilled into brandy; (i,) manures 
— leached ashes; (j,) injured by the Borer, the A2}his, the 
Curcidio; and diseases- — the Yellows, Curl, (fcc. — causes and 
remedies. 

648. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Peach tree, 
(pulled July 22j, (A,) and of the leaves of a tree aft'ected by 
the Yellows, (B,) (Emmons,) 

Carbonic acid, - - - 

Silicic acid, - - , * 

Phosphates, ... 

Lime, ... 

Magnesia, . - - 

Potash, • - - 

Sella, 

Chlorine, ... 

Sulphuric acid, 

Oiganic acids, - - - 

These analyses are peculiarly interesting, as showing that the 
disease called the " yellows'' does not arise from a deficiency of 
inorganic matter. Should further examinations sustain this 
view of the case we may be enabled to find a remedy for this 
scouro-e of the peach tree. We throw out the suggestion, that, 
owing to the constant generations of plants on the same soil, a 
chantre takes place similar to that observed when animals are 
bred in-and in ; or in other words a scrofulous constitution be- 



A 


B 


13.308 


13.200 


0,600 


0.800 


9,600 


11.600 


16.220 


14300 


5.900 


5.300 


14.280 


14.440 


21220 


22.280 


5.120 


4740 


4.420 


4.430 


7.900 


4.300 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



293 



eomes inliereut, which causes the absorption of too great propor- 
tions of inorganic salts, and thence disease, and early mortality. 
We cannot in this place do more than hint at this subject, but 
many facts and analogies may be adduced in support of this the- 
ory, and we submit it to the consideration of those who live in 
a part of the country Avhere this disease prevails. In some soils, 
if long continued wet weather occurs in the early part of the 
summer, the leaves of this tree, even when perfectly healthy, be- 
come diseased, cuil up, and fall off; an affection which we are 
inclined to attribute to an inordinate absorption of salts, but are, 
as yet, unable satisfactorily to prove it. 

649. Inorganic analysis of a small seedling Peach tree, af>-ed 
23 years ; mean diameter 3^- inches ; thickness of bark 1-7 inch ; 
growth rather slow, (Emmons.) 



Potash, 

Soda, 

Chloride of SoJium,.. 
Chloride of Potassivtn. 

Sulphuric acid 

Carbonic acid, 

Lime 

Magnesia, 

Phosphate of iron, 

Piiosplmte of lime. .... 
Phosphate of magnesia, 

Organic matter, 

Insoluble silica, 

Coal, 



Potash 

Soda,. . . . 

Chloride of Sodium,.. . 
Chloride of Potassium, . 

Sulphuric acid, 

Carbonic s^-id, 

Lime,. 

Magnesia, 

Fhospliate of Iron,.. . . . 
Phosphate of lime,. . . . 
Phosphate of Magnesia,. 

Organic matter, 

Insoluble Silica, 

Coal , 



Bark ofl Wood of 
Trunk. Trunk. 



> 1 20 
0.04 

4.19 

42.17 
2.16 
0.4.5 

1879 
n.iii 

.'{.30 
4.1.5 



o.:i6 

12.12 

14.77 
8.00 
2.47 

10.44 
3 15 
086 
6.42 
4.48 



7.11 
11.15 
0.16 

1.51 

2.{.26 
6.40 
0.32 

29.19 
1 34 
5.20 
1.35 



BiirU «fj v> ood of 
Root, j Root. 
3.102 



192 
0..13 



38 48 
2.91 

J 10.40 



3.60 

940 

1.40 
Bark of 
Limb; 



» 06 
15 92 
5.60 

(1.58 

O.ll 

O.dl 

1.02 
18.10 
30 09 

2.55 

6.46 

Wood of 
r.imbs. 



b.bD 



6 18 

31.98 
6 00 
I (iO 
8.50 
0.20 
5.00 
4.:i0 
1.00 



8.11 
24 

8.07 

24.64 
976 
0.6O 

Vi.YiS 

0.™ 

8.40 
1.00 
1.20 



For organic analysis see 



294 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

650. Tliekornols, blossoms, leaves, and bark, possess poison- 
ous qualities, apparently independent of the hydrocyanic 
(Prussic) acid, contained especially in the first. (Pereira.) 

651. The Nectarine (Persicalcevis,) is distinguished frora 
the Peach by its smooth fruit; but it is believed to be merely 
a variety of the latter. In the United States it is rarely culti- 
vated in consequence of the great injury done to it by the Cur- 
culio. 

652. Cherry ( Cerasvs vulgaris,) (a,) native of Asia, ('i,^ 
varieties numerous as Heart, Bigarrea^i, Duke, Morello, each 
of which has many sub-varieties. Best in France ; many good 
American varieties, especially those produced by hyliridizing 
by Dr. Kirtlaud, of Cleveland, 0. ; (c,) propagated by seeds — 
(for stocks and new sorts) — by budding — (grafts ;) dwarfed by 
budding on the Perfumed Cherry (C. Mahaleb;) (d,) cultiva- 
tion; pruning simple, — branches should be trained near the 
ground, with a short stem, (e,) Manui-es, — ^bones, ashes, salt> 
plaster. 

653. Analysis of the leaves of the Oxheart Cherry, (picked, 
May 23rd,) (A;) and of the leaves of the Large Yellow Span- 
ish Cherry, (picked, September 30,J (B.) (Emmons.) 

A. B. 

Carbonic acid, ... 11.450 

Silicic acid, • • l.S.'iO 

Phosphates, - - - 26.650 37.175 

Lime, - - 3941 21.975 

Magnesia, . - - 3.465 3.195 

Potash, - - 23.757 13 948 

Sodn, - - - 12.367 1 .657 

Sulphuric acid, • - not determincvl. 10 260 

Organic acids, - - - do 7.6,50 

Silica. - - do 4 225 

Chloride of sodium. - - do 410 

PUOPORTIONS OF THE tAST, (B.) 

Water, .... 58.628 

Dry matter, - - - 41.372 

Ash. . - . ' 3434 

Ash, calculated dry, . - - 8.300 
For organic analysis, se« § 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 295 

654. The Plum (Primus domestica,) is a native of Eu- 
rope, with four indigenous species in the Northern United 
States. Owing to the destruction of the fruit by the CurcuHo, 
the culture of this tree has become insignificant. The principle 
inorganic constituents are Potash, Soda, Lime, and Phosphoric 
acid. (See Patent Office Report, '49, p. 480.) Many modes of 
preventing the attacks of the Curculio have been proposed, but 
none have proved entirely effectual. Dusting the tree with 
slaked lime is, at present, looked upon with most favor. 

655. Grapes ( Vitis,) (a;) European grapes originally from 
Persia. Quite distinct species from native American Grapes, 
of which there are many species and varieties, (b,) European 
grapes difficult to cultivate in America. Large vineyards on 
the Ohio River, and other States south of that, (c,) Propa^ 
gated by layers, — cuttings, — eyes, — grafts, (d,) Cultivation 
and pruning demand much skill and knowledge. Subject to a 
mould on the fruit, curable by sulphur. 

656. Inorganic analysis of the leaves of the Catawba Grape, 
picked, June 2d, nearly full grown (A,) and the same picked, 
September 30, fruit abundant (B.) (Emmons.) 

Carbonic acid, . . - 

Silicic acid, - • 

Sulphi lie acid. . . - 

Phosphates, • 

Lime, ... 

Magnesia, - • 

Potash, 
Soda, 

Chlorine, ... 

Organic acids, 

Cliloride of sudium, - . 0.305 

From Grapes are mnde : 1. Grape Sugar. 2. Bitartrnte of Potash, 
(Crude tartar or Arpol.) 3. Raisins, and small black "currants" im- 
ported from the Mediterranean. 4. Wine. 5. Brandy. 

657. Gooseberry (Ribcs Grossularia.,) (a,)ntii\\QoiGrQvii 



A. 

3 050 


a. 

8.900 


29.650 Silica 23.150 


2 062 


1.426 


32 950 


28750 


4.391 


26 258 


1.740 


5.330 


13.394 


1.710 


9.698 


2.983 


0.741 




2.250 


3.450 



296 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Britain — many cultivated sub-varieties — 4 wild species in the 
northern United States — prefers a damp chmate and soil ; (b,) 
colors vary, red, yellow, green, differs also much in size, and in 
the prickles on the fruit ; (c,), propogated by cuttings — layei-s, 
suckers, (c,) cultivation simple, best in the U. S. in a damp, 
shaded place, or well mulched es2)ecially with salt-grass — pru- 
ning, annual shortening in, keeping the centre open to admit air; 
(d,) manure, ashes, salt,-well-rotted organic matter ; (e,) a mould 
similar to that on grapes, often destroys the fruit. 

658. Organic analysis of the unripe (A,) and the ripe Goose- 
berry (B.) (Berard.) 

A B 
Chloropliyl and coloring matter - - 0,03 

Sugar, - - - 0.52 6.24 

Dextrine, - - - 1.36 0.78 

Fibre, - - - 8.45 8.01 

Albumen, - - - 1.07 87 

Malic acid, - - - 1.80 2.41 

Citric acid. - - - 0.12 0.31 

Lime, - - - 0.24 0.29 

Water, - - - - 86.41 81.10 
The leaves of the Currant are rich iu Soda and the Phosphates ; the 
blossom, in Potash. (Emmons.) 

659. Rhubarb; (Rheum rhaponticum,) (a,) many species 
cultivated, from Asia, China, Turkey, and Tartary; many 
sub-varieties produced by cultivation; (b,) the petioles, or 
leaf-stalks, used for pies, preserves, making wine ; the root as 
medicine — the best from Russian Tartary, on the confines of 
China — the root grown in Europe and America very inferior as 
a drug ; (c,) cultivation requires deep rich soil, highly manured, 
and the plants covered during the winter with rough barn-yard 
manure — is sometimes blanched, by which the flavor is improved ; 
(d,) the leaf, flower, stalks &c., poisonous, chiefly in consequence 
of the Oxalate of lime contained in them, which is decomposed 
in digestion ; (e,) specific manures, bones — plaster — salt — ashes 
— organic substances. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 297 

660. Percentage of Water, Dry matter, and Ash, in various 
parts of the Giant Rhubarb, cut June 1, Plant in flower. (Salis- 
bury/.) 

Root, Stalk, Petioles, Leaf-blades, Flowers & Pedicles. 
Percentage of w;iter, 82.000 89 50 93.46 88.00 86.90 

Dry matter, 18.&00 10.50 6.53 12.00 13.10 

" Ash, 925 1.13 0.94 1.53 132 

"ashcalc.ondi7mat.5.194 10.76 14.384 12.75 10.C7 

661. Inorganic analy.sis of various pr.itsof the same plant — viz — 
Root (A,) Leaf stalls (B,) Leaf blades (C) Stalk (D.) 

A. B. C. D. 

Silicic acid, - - 3.95 1.40 7.60 0.450 

Phosphates, - 30.05 22 20 19.40 17.20 

Lime, - - 4.78 2.47 5.74 3.57 

Magnesia, - 2.92 0.20 1.16 0.20 

Potash, - - 7.21 5.28 7.87 8.09 

Soda, - - 24.73 33.26 27.36 33.26 

Sodium, - - 0.14 1.C5 2.11 97 

Chlorine, - 0.22 2.50 3 21 1.48 

Sulphuric acid, - - 5.15 5.27 4.27 10.72 

Organic matter, - 7.35 15.60 6.40 12.15 

Carbonic acid, - - 12.05 9.43 14.90 9.40 

662. Proximate organic analysis of the Leafstalks (gathered Sep- 
tember Ist) of a very large and succulent Rhubarb. 

Percentage of water, - - - 87.77 

" of dry matter, - - 12.23 

ash ... 2.27 

" ash calc. on dry matter, - 18.56 

With the Water. Without the Water, 
Fibre with a little starch and clilorophyl, 1.26 9.89 

Malic acid and extract, with a littlo 

tartaric and oxalic acids, 5.70 4462 

Dextrine, - - 0.55 4.30 

Fibie, - - . 3.23 25.30 

Matter separated from fibre, albuminous, 1.60 12 55 

Albumen, - - - 0.27 2.11 

Ga.sein, ' - - 0.15 Ll7 

Water, - - - 87.77 

(See Trans. iV. Y. Agricul. Soc'ety, vol. ix, p. 744.) 

663. Comparative analyses of the lai-ge red Tomato, (Sola- 



298 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

num hjcosperskum,) (A,) and of Egg Plant, (Solanum tne- 
longena,) (B.) (Salisbury.) 

I. Percentage of water, dry matter and asli : 





A 


B 


Water, 


94.75 


91.35 


Dry matter, 


5.24 


8.64 


Asb. 


0.33 


0.60 


Asb, calculated on dry matter. 


6.37 


6.98 


II. Composition of the asL. of the above : 


A. 


B. 


Caibonic acid, 


J 1.05 


4.72 


Silicic acki. 


177 


1.70 


Siiljihuiic acid, 


1.79 


4 74 


rhos{)lioricacid and peroxide of iron, 


24.07 


28.77 


Lime, ... 


0.07 


0.07 


lla<jnesia, 


1.6L 


1.37 


Potasli, 


20.80 


2051 


Soda, 


2.553 


31.97 


Sodium, . . - 


2.79 


1.13 


Chloiine, . . - 


4.24 


1.73 


Oigaiiic acids, 


4.55 


2.20 


III. Proximate organic composition of the Tomato : 




Sugar and extract, with tartaric, citric and malic aci 


ds. 


3.32 


Albumen, - • - 


- 


0.21 


Casein, ... 


- 


0.20 


Dextrine or gum, 


- 


0.54 


Fibre with coloring matter, 




1.01 


Matter separated from the fibre 


- 


0.32 


Water, . . - - 




94.75 


With a small quantity of volatile oil. 






Proximate organic coaiposition of (he Egg Pl-mt 


::— 




Sweet water and extract, with a peculiar bitter principle, 


3.04 


Starch, - - - 


. 


0.36 


Albumen, ... 




0,25 


Casein, . - - 


• 


0.20 


Dextrine or gum, . - - 




0.37 


Fibre, 


. - 


0.76 


Matter separated from the fibre, 




0.97 


Water, 


• 


91.35 


Wiih a small quantity of volatile oil and wax. 






(See Trans. N. Y. A^ricul Socy. Vol. viii.p. 370.) 







AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



299 



664. Asparagus (A officinalis,) owes its flavor and proper- 
ties to a peculiar, easily crystallizable neutral substance (Cs N, 
His Oe which occurs in several plants, as the Marsh-mallow, 
Cumfrey, Potato &c, called Asparagine. 

665. Lettuck (Lactuca saliva,) owes its value to a narcotic 
principle called Laclucin. It acts upon the brain after the man- 
ner of Opium, and induces sleep ; eaten during the da}^, it calms, 
soothes, and allays the tendency to nervous irritability. It is 
probable that it might be fed with a good effect to fattening an- 
imals; in a favorable soil, it is cultivated with great facility. 
(See Blackwood s Magazine, Dec. 1853,/). 679.J 

666. Analysis of the Muskmelon (Cucumis melo,) (A;) 
Watermelon ( Cucurbita citrullus,) (B;) and Cucumber ('Ci*- 
cumis sativus,) (C.) (Salishurrj.) 

Percentage of water, dry matter, and ash : — 



Perce'itage of water, 

" of dry matter, 

of Asli, 
" of Ash in dry matter, 


A. 

90.987 

9013 

2.771 

3.007 


B. 

94898 
5 102 
248 
4.861 


C. 
96 364 
3.636 
0.362 
9.955 


Ultimate analysis 


of the above : — 


A. 


B. 


C. 


Nitrogen, 




2.231 


1.739 


1.236 


Oxygen, 


- 


43.905 


43187 


41806 


Carbon, 




44.820 


43.764 


40.984 


Hydrogen, 


. 


6.832 


6.872 


6.879 


Inorganic matter. 




3.007 


4.861 


9.955 


Inorganic analysis 


of the above : — 


A. 


B. 


C. 


Carbonic acid, 




11.55 


11.42 


13.25 


Silicic acid. 


- 


2.20 


1.21 


0.70 


Phospboiic acid, 




25.40 


14.93 


18.90 


Sulphuric acid. 


- 


3.90 


1.63 


0.90 


Phosphate of iron. 




2.30 


4.52 


3.10 


Lime, 


. 


5.85 


7.32 


4.30 


Magnesia, 
Potash, 




0.60 
8.35 


1.31 
2395 


0.20 
2320 


Soda, 




34.35 


30.63 


33.75 


Chlorine, 


. 


5.20 


1.81 


1.10 


Organic matter, 




trace, 


trace, 


trace. 



300 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Proximate organic analysis of the above (fresh,) ; 

Albumen, 

Casein, 

Dextrine, 

Starch, 

Sugar and extract, 

Chlorophy], - 

Fat, wax, and resin, 

Citric acid, 

Malic acid. 

Tartaric acid. 

Fibre, 

Water, 

The varieties above examined xvere the Nutmeg 3hisktnclon; the 
Long Red Walcrmelon; and the Early Long Prickly Cucumber. (See 
further, Trans, of the N. Y. Agricul. Socy., vol. xii., (1852,) pp. 335 — 
337.) 

667. Analysis of the Vegetable Oyster-root — Tragopocjoi 
porrifoltua,) (A;) of the Endive or Succory-leaf — Cichorium 
Uadivia,) (B;) and of Celery, (Apium Graveolens,) (C.) — 
(Salisbury in Trans, of N. Y. Agricul. Socg., vol. xii.) 

Percentage of water, dry matter, and ash : — 



A. 


B. 


C. 


0.918 


0.572 


0.356 


0.442 


0.004 


040 


1.142 


0.313 


0.354 


tiace, 


none. 


0.002 


5.250 


3020 


2.826 


0.004 


0.006 


0.006 


0.038 


0.022 


0.031 


trace. 


0.007 




0.007 


0.009 




0.0('5 


trace. 




1.123 


1.058 


9.61 


90.987 


94.898 


95.354 





A. 


B. 


C. 


Percentage of water. 


81.22 


91.925 


88.225 


" of dry matter. 


18.78 


8.075 


11.775 


" of ash, 


1.465 


1.010 


1.375 


" of ash in dry matter, 


8-333 


12.507 


11.931 


Ultimate analysis of the above : 










A 


B 


C 


Nitrogen, 


0.995 


2.170 


2.121 


Carbon, 


42.044 


41.171 


40.626 


Oxygen, 


44.017 


40.257 


40 352 


Hydrogen, 


5.058 


5.617 


5.371 


Inorganic matter, 


8.8G0 


12 507 


11.931 


Inorganic analysis of the above :- 


— 








A 


B 


C 


Carbonic acid, 


24.60 


1.3.80 


20.80 


Silicia acid, 


0.60 


20.80 


5.60 



AGRICULTURAL TKXT-BOOK. 



801 







A 


B 


C 


Phosphoric acid, 


- 


15.60 


9,90 


5.40 


Phosphate of iroD, 




185 


2.95 


4.95 


Lime, 




4.95 


8.05 


13.55 


Magnesia, 




0.75 


3.65 


0.90 


Potash, 




5-80 


8.90 


7.25 


Soda, 




39.20 


27.80 


28.80 


Chlorine, 




2.45 


1.40 


1.40 


Sulphinic acid. 




3.90 


2.10 


10.30 


Organic matter, 




trace. 






Proximate organic analysis 


of the above :- 


- 








A 


B 


C 


"Water, 




80.610 


91.925 


88.225 


Fibre, 




2.764 


1348 


3.168 


Sugar and extract, - 




3.665 


4.300 


5.685 


Dextrine, 




1.435 


0.735 


0.905 


Casein, ... 




0.172 


0.100 


0.115 


Albumen, 




1.066 


1.320 


1.532 


Starch, - 




0.035 


none. 


none. 


Resin, - . - 




0.180 


260 


0.185 


Gluten, - 




0.014 


0.055 


0.095 


Chlorophyl, 






0.052 


0.055 


Wax, 






0.055 and 


oil 0.120 



CHAPTER XXII. 



MANURES. 

668. In order to understand the principles of manuring we 

jmiist consider:' — 

(a,) A plant consists of two parts, an organic and a mineral part. 
The mineral part is drawn from tbe soil alone, by the roots ; while of 
Ihe oro^anic part one portion comes from the soil through the roots, and 
another portion from tbe air through tbe leaves. 

(6,) The organic part of plants consists of four simple bodies, or 
pases; carbon, bydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. In all tbe parts of 
plants these four are associated also, witb minute quantities of sulphur 
and phosphorus. 

(c,) Of these four snbst.lnces nitrogen appears to be drawn by tbe 
plant almost exclusively from the soil ; tbe hydrogen and oxygen aie 
drawn partly from tbe soil and partly from the air— chiefly in the foim 
of water. The carbon is derived only in small proportion from the 
soil, being for tbe most part sucked in from tbe air by the leaves, in tbe 
form of carbonic acid gas. Sulphur and phosphorus come from the soil 

oidy. 

(d,) The mineral part of tbe plant, which forms from half of one per 
cent, to 15 to 20 per cent, of tbe whole weight of the dried plant, con- 
sists of about 12 different substances. (See $ 93, p. 27.) Of ibese silica 
exists chiefly in the stems of grasses, grains, &c . and in smaller propoi- 
lion only in tbe softer parts and juices of plants. Potash, soda, chlorine 
ond sulphuric acid are, for the nuist part, found in tbe sap ; liite, mag- 
nesia, and oxide of iron in tbe solid parts of plants. Phosphoric acid is 
necessary to, and is found in every part of a plant, but it collects m 
larger proportion in the grain or seeds as the season of ripening ap- 
proaches. {See Johnston's Experimental Agricnllure, p. 7.) 

(c,) No plant therefore can flourish and come to maturity unless it is 
able to procure in a proper form, aad absorb tbe aboTc subitances. 

669» We must consider also: — 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 303 

(a,) That a fertile soil consists of three portions, 1. Of one which is 
flormaiit, as the sand and clay which form by far the larger mass of it ; 
2. Of the a\)ove minerals and organic matter in a state in which tiicy 
are insoluble in water, and therefore cannot become pnrt of a plant ; 
and 3. Of the same in a soluble form capable of dissolving in water, and 
of entering into the pores of the roots. {See $ \13,p. 34.) 

(6,) That every crop which is tal;en off the ground carries away a 
notable portion of the .soluble materials ; and, supposing that there ex* 
isted no means of adding to them, all soil would rapidly becomo 
exhausted by cultivation. 

(c) But nature is continua-ly rendering soluble that which she finds 
insoluble in the soil, by the action of tho air, of carbonic acid gas, by 
heat, electricity, moisture, and complex chemical changes wJiich are 
always in progress. Again, a porous soil into which air and water can 
find their way, is constantly receiving additions fiom tht atmosphere, 
and from spring water laden with soluble salts, raised by evaporation 
and capillary attraction. {See § 21), p. 9, $ 55, p. 17.) 

{(i,) If, tlierefore, we were content to commence cultivating a virgin 
soil, abounding in all that is requisite to form a phint ; to take off one 
grain crop ; and then leave the field uncultivated for a certain number 
of years, we might in this tnanner retain the fertility of the soil, and 
at each period reap an equally large crop, for any length of time. 

(c.) But this mode of cultivating the soil is unprofitable; and, there* 
fore, the ingenuity of man has discovered various modes of hastening or 
dispensing with the action of nature. These modes are 1. A 6 re fallow, 
where two grain crops were taken in succession, and then the land was 
left unfruitful for a year, but frequently plowed and stirred so as to ex- 
pose every part of it to the dissolving action of the elements. 2. Rota' 
tions, so arranged that each succeeding crop abstracted only such mate* 
rials as were not required by the other crops ; so that when grain was 
again sown it found an accumul.ition of tiiose peculiar elements which 
were requisite for its prosperity. 3. Draining, whereby tho soil was 
rendered porous to a considerable depth, and enabled to receive and 
retain such elements as the air and water were capable of supplying j 
and 4. Manuring, which is procuring from some other source, and ap- 
plying directly to i,he soil the elements necessary for the crop ; or, in 
other words placing in th>; ground the raw material which nature is to 
work up into grain ; as the pai^er. maker collects old rags, out of which 
white paper is to bo mide. {See Fannir'a Companion and Horlicultti- 
ral Gaz-Jle, Vol. ii, p. 89.) 

(/) M.v\uai.vQ, therefore, may be defined to be the directly supplying 



304 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



to the soil those constituents which are necessary for the formation of 
the plant we wish to grow, and which, in a soluble shape, are eilli«jr 
naturally deficient in the soil, or have become so by our carrying them 
off in the form of grain, meat, &c., we not being able to wait until nature 
performs this work for us,* 

670. Manuring is probably tbe most costly mode of restor- 
ing tbe fertility of the soil that can be practiced. 

671. But wbile many pereons are content merely to retain, by 
manuring, their land at its natural point of fertility, others ren- 
der it much more fertile than it ever was ; on the principle that 
if a certain quantity of applied manure can be worked up into 
a grain crop, a still greater quantity will supply a larger propor- 
tion of grain. 

672. From this it must be apparent that in order that a 
farmer may economically and skilfully manure his land, he must 
understand the composition of plants, the relative materials 
which constitute his soil, the constituents of the manures ap- 
plied, and their chemical action. For were he to put on his 
field a salt in a soluble form which would immediately become 
insoluble in coasequence of chemical changes, the manure 
would be lost to him. 

In the following pages we shall chiefly confine ourselves to an ac- 
count of the manures which are generally available in the Northern 
States, and the principles on which they act. P'or further information 
on this extended and intricate subject we must refer the reader to works 
especially bearing upon it. 

673. The following diagram from Dumai^ <b BoussingmdVs Chemical 
and Physioloijlcal Balance of Organic Nature, may be useful in this 
connection. 



*A species of mamirnig niRy be practiced, the principle of which differs from the 
above; as where a salt is applied, »tot for the purpose of directly entering into the 
plant, but to act, chemically, as a solvent, upon the insoluble constituents of the soil; 
o as a fixer of gases, or other to" readily soluble materials, as charcoal and proba- 
bly plaster. 



AGRICULTURAL TBXT-BOOK. 305 

AN ANIMAL A VEGETABLE 

is is 

AN APPARATUS OF COMBUSTION J AN APPARATUS OF REDUCTION ; 

Possesses the faculty of Locomotion ; Is fixed ; 

Burns Carbon, Reduces Carbon, 

Hydrogen, Hydrogen, 

Ammouium, Ammonium, 

Exhales Carbonic acid, Fixes Carbonic acid, 

Water, Water, 

Oxide of Ammonium, Oxide of Ammonium, 

Nitrogen ; Nitrogen ; 

Consumes Oxygen, Produces Ojgen, 

Neutral nitrogeuiied matters, Neutral nitrogenized matters. 

Fatty matters. Fatty matters. 

Amylaceous matters. Amylaceous matters, 

sugars, gums ; sugars, gums; 

Produces Fleat, Absorbs Heat, 

Electricity ; Abstracts Electricity ; 

Restores its elements to the air, Derives its elements from the air, 

or to the earth ; or from the earth ; 

Transforms organized matters Transforms mineral matters into 

into mineral matters. organized matt«rs. 

673. Manures are generally classed under three heads : — (a,) vegeta- 
ble ; (b,) animal ; (c,) mineral. Those that are of vegetable origin be- 
ing formed of decaying vegetable matter, consist, like the plant, of an 
organic and mineral part; of which the former is usually much the 
laiger in quantity But a new branch of study is connected with the 
decay oi decomposition of this vegetable matter, and especially of its 
organic part, in the farm-yard, in the compost heap, or in the soil. This 
decay gives rise to new chemical combinations, which have much influ- 
ence on the efficacy of the decomposed matter as a manure. The nature 
and products of this new series of chemical changes ought to be famil- 
iar to tlie farmer. 

674. Those manures which ore of animal origin resemble, in com- 
position, the parts of the animal body from wliich they are derived — the 
blood, flesh, bone, <tc. Or, if they consist of urine and dung of ani. 
mals, they have a certain relation, especially the solid excrements, to 
the food on which the animals have lived. Here, however, a new kind 
of information is demanded. These animal substances, like the vegeta- 
ble, putrify before they become directly useful to plants. In the bodies 

20 



306 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

of auimals, also, changss take place, by •which the food consumed is 
decomposed, and new corapouDds of much importance are, in conse- 
quence, introduced into the urine and dung. All these changes are, in 
some degree, connected with the richness and fertilizing quality of ani- 
mal manures, or with the special action of the variety which may be 
used. To know on what the general efficacy or peculiar effect of such 
manures depends, their changes and the substances produced by Ihera, 
should be understood. How different samples of the same kind of ma- 
nures differ in virtue ; how this virtue is modified, lost, jneservcd, or 
augmented — these questions are of much consequence in ordinary farm- 
ing, if the besl, or most profitable results are to be obtained by the 
practical man. 

675. Mineral, or saline manures are combinations, or mixtures of diff- 
erent combinations of one or more of those mineral substances which 
exist and are found in living plants. These saline substances are fixed 
and definite in their composition. But to use them right — to apply 
them in the proper place, at the proper time, and in the proper quantity 
— to understand their action, how they ought to be mixed, and why 
their effects vary in different circumstances and localities — all this re- 
quires that they should be thoroughly known, and their mode of action, 
as single substances and as mixtures understood. (See Johiiston's Ex- 
perim. Agricul., p. 2i6.) 

676. In order to show the very complex action of plants and manures on the soil, 
we extract the following curious and instructive account of an experiment by a prac 
tical English farmer, from the Journal of the Royal Jgricul. Socy. of England, vol. 
%iii. p- 417. — 1852. It is worthy of careful study, and shows more clearly than any 
other document we are acquainted with, the difficulties which beset the farmer in the 
management of his crops and manures : 

" In the autumn of 1846, a field of three acres was manured at the rate of 20 tons 
of farm-yard manure per acre, and sown with rye for soiling in the following spring. 
It produced a very heavy crop, but on account of the stalks becoming too hard for 
the horses, half the rye was allowed to remain for seed. The part of the field which 
had been cut for soiling was immediately plowed and sown with globe turnips, with 
A dressing of three cwt. of Peruvian guano per acre. The turnips were very fine. 
After the seed rye was harvested and the turnips cleared, the whole three acres were 
plowed and set with beans the following February ; and now comes the curious part 
of the affair. The beans came up well all over the field ; but a difference was soon 
perceived between those on the seed-rye and turnip ground, the former looking much 
more luxuriant than the latter, but we were not prepared for what afterwards took 
place. The beans that followed the turnips actually stopped all growth when six 
inches high, and, of course, did not seed, whereas, after the seed-rye they grew so 
liixuriantly as to injure the produce, and this difference extended to the line where 
we had discontinued cutting the green-rje— the more coaspicuous as we had stepped 
in the middle of a land. 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



307 



The result certainly astonished me, for it was in direct antagonism to all precon- 
ceived notions of farmers ; as it is usually thought by them that crops do not impoT- 
erish the ground, nearly to the same extent when cut green, as when allowed to ri- 
pen their seed. Turnips, too, are generally supposed to extract the greater portion of 
their nourishment from the atmosphere. But here we find that beans actually re- 
fused to grow after the green-rye and turnips, notwithstanding the application of 
three cwt of guano, and the land being in much better tilth ; where the rye was al- 
lowed to ripen its seed, and no extra manure applied they grew luxuriantly. 

1 determined to inquire whether the researches of chemists would throw any light 
upon the question ; and the difficulty I had in compiling the following small tables, 
fully accounts to my mind for the fact that chemistry has hitherto received so little 
assistance from practical farmers. 
Probable Amount of Ingredients abstracted from or restored to One acre of Land by 

the several Crops and Manures of Rotation I, (Seeded Rye and Beans.)* 



For one acre of land in lbs. 


e 
o 
.a 

6 


ii 

a 


1 


"oo 

1 


1 


o 


o 

s 
■.3 


.§2 


Amount added to soil by ) 
birn-yard manure, J 
Ditto by seed Rye, 


3320 
56 


400 
6 


2380 

53 

2433 

1868 


180 

2 

182 

3t 


140 
0.7 


40 

40 
0.1 


280 


140 

1 


Total added for rye crop, 
Amount abstracted byditto 


337ti 

2169 


41)6 
245 


141 

25 


280 
10 


141 

14 


Balance after rye crop, 
Am't added by seed beans 


1207 
101 


Itil 
15 


565 
86 


14S 
13 


116 
3 


40 


270 
1 


127 
2 


Bilance left for Bean crop, 
Amount required by ditto 


1303 


176 

? 


651 
164? 


161 

? 


119 

55 


40 

8 


271 
37 


129 
29 


Balance. 


1 


? 


? 


—3 


+ 64 


+32 


+234 


+ 100 



Rotation 2, (Green Rye, Turnips, and Beans.) 



For one acre in lbs. 


a 
o 
,a 
u 

5 


o . 


Oxygen. 
Nitrog'n 


1 

<2 


CO 


e 
3 


.§3 


Ainounc added to soil by ? 
barn-yard manure, ) 
Ditto by seed rye. 


3320 

56 

^76 
1499 


400 
6 


2380 
53 


180 
2 


140 

0.7 


40 


280 


140 

I 


Tot'I add for green rye crop 
Amount abstracted by ditto 


406 
168 


2433 
1233 


lb2 
12 


141 
17 


40 


2bO 
9 


141 
4 


Balance after ditto 

Am't added by 3 cwts guano 


1877 


238 

? 


1200 

f 


170 

48 


124 
10 


40 
4 


271 
38 


137 
49 


Balance left for turnip crop, 
Am't abstracted by ditto 


101 


? 




218 
1.'.9 


134 

166 


44 

5 


309 
102 


186 
33 


Balance left after the 2 crops 
Am't added by seed leaves, 


J 
15 


86 


59 
13 


-32t 
3 


39 


207 

1 


153 

2 


Balance left for bean crop, 
Am't required by ditto 


J 


? 
? 


? 

? 


72 
161? 


—29 
55 


39 

8 


208 
37 


155 
29 


Balance 


? 


r 


—92 


—84 


+31 


+ 171 


+ 126 



•Mr. Hemming calculated in the same manner every constituent of the plant, but 
the size of our pase obliges us to give those only which are most essential to growth. 

CfThe mark ( — ) means minus, or that the turnips abstracted 32 lbs. more Potash, 
than had been supplied to the soil by the manure and other sources. In the last line. 



308 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

When we come to compare the balance left in the soil after these two rotations, sup- 
posing the bean crop to have succeeded in both, we find that with the green rye and 
turnips there is a large deficiency both of nitrogen and potash, tliat of the latter 
amounting to 8 1 lbs. per acre, or in other words the soil would have had to supply 
84 lbs. of potash, in addition to that supplied by the manure in order to grow a crop 
•f beans, whereas in the rotation where the rye was allowed to stand for 8«ed, there 
■was a large excess of potash, and a suSiciency of nitrogen." 

The above also elucidates a principle which the practical farmer should never lose 
sight of; viz, that a field may prove barren for a given crop, such as wheat, from the 
deficiency of only one. or two constituents ; andjthat, in order to supply this deficiency, 
our cheapest course generally is to give to the soil that peculiar material. Suppose I 
have a field which refused to grow wheat, in consequence of impoverishment. Am 
I to supply barn-yard manure, which contains every thin% the wheat crop can require, 
but which is costly owing to the quantity which I must haul from a distance and 
spread? or shall I apply 3 cwt of guano, and 100 pounds of super-phosphate of lime, 
on the supposition that nitrogen and phosphoric acid alone are wanting? In the 
Michigan Oak openings we have reason to believe that it is a deficiency of these two 
materials only which renders the soil less fertile than it used to be ; but a chemical 
analysis can alone positively decide the matter. In practice the question would be 
one of cost, supposing the barn-yard manure to be good : but the amount of common 
dung requisice to supply the nitrogen, phosphates and potasii of the above named 
gnano and bones, would have to be very much larger than we are in the habit of using 
to the acre. The above also teaches, that while a field may lefiise to grow one crop 
profitably, it may be quite capable of growing another and different class of plants. 

677. Before manures can produce their full and profitable 
effect upon tlie soil, the land must be laid dry by drainage or 
other means. It must" also be cleaned and kept clean from 
weeds. 

678. The value of the various constituents of manure may 
be thus classified ; and the money cost, in the Western States, 
of any given manure can easily be estimated by the quantity of 
the following ingredients which it contains, in a soluble form. 

1. Nitrogen. 7. Potash. 

2. Ammonia. 8. Magnesia. 

3. Phosphoric Acid. 9. Iron and Manganese. 

4. Sulphuric Acid. 10. Lime. 
6. Soda. 11. Carbon. 

6. Chlorine. 12. Soluble Silica. 

679. It is impossible to ascertain by theory alone and with- 
out actual experiment, the exact effect which a given manure 
will produce upon a given soil or crop. The mechanical con- 

jt shows that there were 92 lbs. less nitrogen and 84 lbs. less potash than the bean 
crop required, and it appears to be taken for granted that the soil contained none of 
these constituents except where they had been artificially supplied.) 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 309 

struction of the soil, the climate, the season, the mode of cul- 
tivation, the salts already contained in the earth, but especially 
the period, mode, and form in which a manure is applied, all 
combine in influencing the final result. Theoretically^ the val- 
ue of a manure depends upon the amount of nitrogen which 
it contains, but, practically, this does not ahvays prove to be the 
eas« ; and in some instances, a salt, such as gypsum, wholly io- 
void of nitrogen, may return a larger crop than any nitrogenous 
manure we can apply. The rule, however, is general in its ap- 
plication, the exceptions comparatively few. The form of a 
manure, and the way in which we apply it are, in practice, of 
chief importance. Thus, in most instances, barn-yard manure 
well prepared and well rotted, is very superior in action to " long 
dung," unfermented, and with the vegetable matter undecayed. 
Yet there are soils and crops for which the latter is preferable. 
Again, bones owe much of their eflicacy to the manner in which 
they are prepared. Whole bones, boiled bones, crushed or 
ground bones, bones dissolved in sulphuric acid, and applied in 
a powder, or in a solution with water, all differ in their effects 
and profitable results. Thus, in an English experiment, it was 
found that — 

18 bushels of crushed bones gave 10 tons 3 cwt. turnips per acre. 
2 " bones dissolved in acid and applied dry gave 11 tons 15 cwt. 
4 .t ., « « " 14 » 11 « 

g « << << << « ig >< 1 (C 

But when applied in a liquid form at the time of sowing, the 
effect was still more remarkable, thus : — 

Tons per acre. 

16 bushels of bone dust (dry) produced 11 of turnips. 

8 " dissolv( d in 83 lbs of acid dried up and \ 

sown with the hand produced 5 

While 2 bushels, with 83 lbs. of acid, and 400 gal- > 

Ions water produced j 

And, again, in a third locality in Scotland. 76 lbs. ) 

of bones, 46 lbs. of acid, and 400 gallons of > 173^ 
water produced ) 

While 440 lbs. of bones, with 28 lbs. of acid ap- ) ,- 
plied dry, produced only 5 



11 



310 AGRICtTLTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

The same rule appears to liokl good as regards barn-yard 
manures. In Flanders and Switzerland they have long been 
dissolved in water previous to application, and, of late years, in 
Great Britain, the steam engine has been employed for this pur- 
pose, and the liquid carried over the farm in iron pipes, similar 
to those used for Hydraulic works in our cities ; the extra pow- 
er of the manure being supposed to cover the greatly increased 
cost of preparation and application. (See Prof. J. W. F. 
Johnston's Essay on Manures, written for the Farmer'' s Com- 
panion and Horticultural Gazette, vol. \,p. 98,) So in the 
same manner. Plaster has been found to act more efficiently 
when plowed in, instead of being scattered over the surface, and 
newly and finely ground gypsum is understood to act more ef- 
ficiently than that which is coarse, and long kept, even in tight 
barrels. And again, common salt has been applied with bene- 
ficial results, in large quantities, to fruit trees in one locality, 
while a smaller application has killed trees in another. 

There is no one subject in agriculture which demands, at the present 
day, more careful, continued, and widely extended experiments than the 
practice of manuring. Of the positive and relative constituents of 
common manures, the best quantities to apply, the condition in which, 
and the time when they should be used, the average effect which they 
produce, and the money profit derived from their application, we regret 
to believe that the great proportion of practical farmers are quite igno- 
rant; and there can be no doubt but that this ignorance causes great 
individual and national losses. 

680. I. — Animal Manures. 

Flesh, is a rich manure in itself, and the rapidity with which 
it decays, enables it to bring other organic substances into a state 
of active fermentation. It is a very compound substance, in 
the shape in which we generally meet with it — that of dead 
animals — consisting of the lean muscle, or Fibrin; of fat or 
oil; and of blood, which again consists of Fibrin, Albumen, 
(white of egg^ coloring matter, several salts and water; while 
connected with the flesh are hair, horns, hoof, tendons, bones, 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 311 

again differing from the first in their relative composition. The 
only flesh, usually, at the farmer's disposal is that of animals ac- 
cidentally dying, or, near cities, the refuse of the slaughter 
houses. A dead animal, if large, should be cut to pieces, and 
mixed with six or eight times its weight of peat, muck, earth, 
or even barn-yard manure ; with plaster and salt ; being shel- 
tered from the rain ; the whole of which will be converted into 
a very rich compost. A horse will supply sufficient ammonia 
to grow an acre of wheat. 

681. An ox, on the average, yields of 

Saleable meat - 58 per centJITallow, - - 8 per cent 
Skill, - 5^2 P^i' cent. 

The marketable meat contains, 

Dry bone, 10 per centjMuscle, with blood, lymph <fec 16 p. ct. 

Cellular tissue <fe fat 5 " jWater, - - 71 " 

The chemical composition of flesh and blood is almost identi- 
cal, so that blood may be called liquid flesh, and vice versa; the 
solid or liquid state being more dependent upon stnicture than 
upon the amount of water — blood only containing 3 per cent 
more water than flesh. 

682. Ultimate analysis of Dry Beef (A,) and Dry Ox Blood, 
(B.) (Playfair and BeeTcman.) ^ ^ 
Carbon, - - - 51.83 51.96 
Hydrogen, - - . 7.57 7.25 
Nitrogen, - - - 15.01 15.0T 
Oxygon, . - - 21.37 21.30 
Ashes • - - 4.22 4.42 

683. Inorganic analysis of the Blood of the Ox (A,) Calf (B,) 
and Sheep (C.) (Enderlin.) a b c 
Phosphate of Soda - -" 16.77 30.18 13.30 
Chloride of Sodium, - 59.34? rne.K crkt 
Cliloride of Potassium, - - 6.12 ] ^'^'^^ ^^'^^ 
Sulphate of Soda, - 3.85 2.94 5.38 
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, - 419 3.49) lonn 
Oxide and phosphate of iron. - 8.28 9.28 5 
Gypsum and loss, - • 1.45 1.46 0,83 



312 AGRICTJLTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

The reader will notice the large quantity of common Salt (Chloride of 
sodium, J found in the blood of our domestic animals, and as our com- 
mon forage plants coutain but a small quantity of it, be will see the ne- 
cessity of regularly supplying it with the food. In countries near the 
Sea, as in Great Britain, sufficient salt is deposited on the grass by the 
winds and spray, and there, salt is not given to cattle ; but in the "West, it 
becomes an essential necessary of life, and were it not for the "Salt 
Licks", the Deer aftid olHir vild, ruminating animals would perish. 

(For the eftect of blood as a manure upon wheat, in its yield and 
composition see ante $ 177 p 68 ; upon rye $ 211, p 87; upon barley 
$ 237, p 91 ; and upon oats \ 262, 103. 

684. Hair, Horn, and Wool, are distiiiguislied from the 
muscular parts of the animal body, by the large projwrtion- — 
about 5 per cent — of sulphur which they contain. They consist 
of a substance, which, in other respects, closely resembles gluten 
and gelatine in its chemical composition. When burned they 
leave from one to 2 per cent of ash. The inorganic matter, 
therefore, is generally the same as is found in the muscular fibre 
and the bone. 

685. Bones are, in reahty, that portion of animals, to which, 
as a manure, the farmer is the most indebted. It has been ob- 
served that all usefid plants contain phosphorus, which is one 
of the rarest minerals in the soil ; which, when in a soluble form, 
is most rapidly withdrawn ; and yet, without which, plants be- 
come useless, for the sustenance of animal bodies. It has oc- 
curred, that the old pasture lauds of Cheshire, England, became 
impoverished of this element ; and although grass continued to 
grow, it was inferior in quality, and animals fed upon it be- 
came diseased, especially as to their bony structure. Till lately 
bones and brains have been the only available sonrce whence 
Phosphorus could be procured. The following is the composi- 
tion of the Ileum of a sheep (A,) of an ox (B,) and the verte- 
brae of a haddock (C.) (Thomp^n.) 

ABC 
Organic matter, - . 43 3 48.5 30.5 

Phosphate of lime. - • 50.6 45.2 56.1 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 313 

ABC 
Carbonate of lime - - 4.5 6.1 3.6 

Magnesia, - - - 0.9 0.2 0.8 

Soda, - . . 0.3 0.2 0.8 

Potash, - - - 0.2 0.1 

The proportion of water in tlie bones of quadrupeds varies 
from 7 to 20 per cent according fe) the age of the animal, and 
the tat, or oily matter from 13 to 25 per cent. Those of the 
ox contain 64.5 per cent of earthy matter, and 35.5 per cent of 
cartilage ; each family diifering in this regard. 

686. Bones do not benefit plants under all circumstances, and, 
as has been stated, the form and mode in which they are ap- 
plied, is of much importance. In Great Britain Avhere they are 
in especial demand for the turnip crop, it has been the fashion, 
till of late, merely to grind them in mills built for the purpose ; 
the bones being of different lengths, from fragments 1 inch long to 
dust; and sometimes boiled, sometimes unboiled bones were 
preferred. It is now becoming general there, and in the Uni- 
ted States, to employ them as Sujjerphosphate or Biphosphate 
of lime, that is, dissolved in Sulphuric acid. This may be done 
by the Farmer himself procuring the ground bones, and in lead- 
en vessels, boiling in Sulphuric acid diluted with water ; but ac- 
cording to Johnston, the following is the trite superphosphate. 
" When burned bones are reduced to powder, and digested in 
Sulphuric acid, diluted with once or twice its weight of water, 
the acid combines with a portion of the hme, and forms sulphate 
of lime (plaster) while the remainder of the lime and the whole 
of the phosphoric acid are dissolved. The solution, therefore, 
contains an acid phosphate of lime, or one in which the phos- 
phoric acid exists in much larger quantity than in the earth of 
bones. The true bi-phosphate when free from water consists of 
71^ phosphoric acid, and 28|- of lime." In a manufactured 
state, however, it is probably never found thus pure ; and great 
complaints have, at times, been made that the manufacturers mix 



314 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

plaster, earth, salt, and other clieap ingredients with it. "When 
purchasing, the farmer should procure an analysis of the sam- 
ples and afterwards compare them with the bulk. In Great Bri- 
tain the manufacture of fictitious and worthless manures is said 
to have become an extensive trade, the farmers thus losing large- 
ly from their ignorance of chemistry. On a small scale, bones 
may be rendered partially soluble by breaking or grinding, and 
mixing with fresh wood ashes, to be kept moist for a month or 
two. 

687. In the United States, Mineral Phosphate of lime or 
Apatite has been found and dug in considerable quantities at 
Crown Point, N. Y., and in New Jersey; some of which has 
been exported to England. So far, the purity appears to differ 
much, and the expense of mining and dissolving, has discouraged 
the progress of the works. The following are Dr. Jackson's an- 
alyses of pure specimens of the minerals, compared with Prof. 
Johnston's analysis of bones. 

New York. 
Lime, 47.230 ? 

Phosphoric Acid, 45.710 \ 

Carbouic Acid, 1.218 ? 

Lime, 1.554 \ 

Chlorine, 0.130 \ 

Calcium, 0,204 < 

Fluoriae, 0.590 / 

Calcium, 0.855 ] 

Protoxide of Iron, 2.000 

Water, 0.500 

Oxide of Manganese, 
Phosphate of Magnesia, 
Soda and common Salt, 
Gelatine (animal matter,) 

{See Jour, of Boston Socy. of Nht. Hist.) 

Many Marls, especially those formed of recent shell, and some lime 
rocks, contain notable proportions of the phosphates. 

688. Fish are also a valuable manure, where they can be had 
in quantities. On parts of the New York and New England 
coasts they are annually caught in vast shoals for this purpose, 
and the time will come when the streams and lakes of the West 



New Jersey. 
92-405 


Bones. 
55.50 

4.00 




0.540 

7.012 
0.040 




3.00 
20 00 


0.003 


2.00 

250 

3300 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



315 



•will supply their portion to the soil. The bones and flesh of fish 
very nearly resemble those of quadrupeds in their phosphates and 
nitrogen; fish, however, generally affording more free oil. 
They should always be composted with muck, peat, &c. 

689. Shell fish are rarely found sufficiently numerous to bo 
used as a manure, except in a mineral state. In New England, 
muscles and oyster shells are collected. In Alabama there are 
vast deposits of this kind ; and according to Dr. Houghton (M. 
S.,) much of the marl of Michigan is formed of recent shells. 
They chiefly consist of hme, a little phosphoric acid, animal 
matter, and in salt water, iodine, and soda. 

690. Barx Yard Manures are composed of the dung and 
urine of animals, with hay, straw, &c., more or less decayed, and 
they necessarily differ much according to (a,) the species ; (b,) 
the age of the animal ; (c,) the food it eats ; (d,) the mode in 
which the dung is preserved, whether exposed to rain, sun, &c. ; 
(e,) the quantity of urine contained; (/,) the decomposition 
which has taken place; (g,) whether alkalies or hme are 
in connection with it during decay, and how long. 

691. Table exhibiting the amount in pounds of carbon, &c., 
in the food and dung of two cows during fourteen days. 
(Thompson.) 



Brown Cow. 


White Cow. 




Grass. 


Dung. 


Consump- 

tiOQ. 


Grass. 


Dung. 


Consump- 
tion. 


Carbon, 

Hydrogen, 

Nitrogen, 

Oxygen, 

Ash, 

Water, 


lbs. 

161% 

21 

e}4 

148 

133% 
1070% 


lbs. 
67 

8 
2 7-10 

54}^ 

141/^ 

902i^ 


lbs. 
94% 
13 

3 8-10 

4 4-10 
167K 


lbs. 

161% 

21 

148 

18% 
1070% 


lbs. 
64 

7^ 
2^ 
52 
13% 
860 


lbs. 
97% 
13^ 

4 
96 

5 
210% 




1426% 


1049 


377 


1426% 


1000 


426% 



(See also, Liebig's Animal Chemistry. Note 4.) 



316 



AGRICULTUKAL TEXT-BOOK. 



Or according to another estimate, a cow consuming 26.41 lbs. 
of grass daily, emits in shape of dung 11.13 lbs.; and con- 
sumes, in the support of its body, 15.28 lbs. 100 parts of 
fresh fallen cow-dung wiU afford 0.614 or five-eighths of a 
pound of pure ammonia, or about 2 lbs. 2 oz. of carbonate of 
ammonia (sal volatile) of the shops. (S. L. Dana.) 
■ Analysis of 100 parts of cow-dung. (Penot.) 

Water, - • - 69.58 

Bitter mntter, ... 0.74 

Sweet substance, - •• - 0.93 

Chloiopbyl, - - - 0.28 

Albumen, ... 0.63 

Muriate of .soda, - - - 0.08 

Sulphate of potash, - - - 0.05 

Sulphate of lime, ... 0.25 

Carbonate of lime, • - - 0.24 

Phosphate of lime, ... 0.46 

Carbonate of iron, - • - 0.09 

Woody fibre, - • - 26.39 

Silica, - - - 014 

Loss, - - - - 0.14 

The amount of water, however, mentioned above, is too small. 

Boussingault gives the following comparative analysis : 

Fresh dung. Dry dung. 





Cow. 


Horse. 


Cow. 


Horse. 


"Water, 


90.60 


75.31 






Is^itrogen, 


0.22 


0.54 


2.3 


2.2 


Saline matter. 


1.13 


4.02 


12.0 


16.3 



So that in every ] 00 lbs, of fresh cow-dung, we have ^ of 
a pound of nitrogen, and a little over one pound of salts. 

692. Table exhibiting the food and water of a horse, con- 
sumed; and dung and urine, voided in 24 hours. (Boussin- 
gault.) (See Liebig's Animal Chemistry. Note 4.) 



Carbon, 

Hydrogen, 

Oxjgen, 

Nitropron, 

Salts and earthy matters. 



Food. Dung. Consumed 



3938.0 1472 9 
446.5 191.3 

3209.2 13G3.0 
139.41 115.4 
672.2 684.5 



2465.1 

255.2 

1846.2 

24. 



+ 12.3 



AGRICULTURAL TBXT-BOOK. 3l7 

Analysis of liorse-dung, in Rliode Island, (Jackson.) 500 
grains, dried at a heat a little above that of boiling water, lost 
357 grains of water. The dry mass weighing 143 grains was 
burned, and left 8.5 grains of ashes, of which 4.80 grains were 
soluble in dilute nitric acid, and 3.20 insoluble. 

Water, - - - 357 

Vegetable fibre and animal matter, • - 135 

Silica, .... 3.2 

Phosphate of lime, ... 0.4 

Carbonate of 'ime, ... 1.5 

Phosphate of magnesia and soda, • - 2.9 

500.0 
Horse-dung, in consequence of the smaller proportion of 
water, and more ammonia, ferments, or " heats," more rapidly 
than the solid excrement of the cow: the ammonia bein^ 
evolved and lost ; and in this mode it may be rapidly deterio- 
rated. 

693. The dung of sheep and of fattening hogs is richer in 
nitrogen than either of the above, and consequently ferments 
and acts more rapidly. 

Boussingault found the following proportions : 

Sheej). Hogs. 

, ^ ^ , y^ _^ 

RpcentlDry Recent Dry 

"WaliT, - 63.0 — 81 — 

Nitrogen, - - 1.112,99 0.63 3.37 

Ash - - 12.71 _ _ 

694. Dung of birds (Fowls, Pigeons, &c,) being mixed with 
urine, is still richer. In Belgium the dung yearly produced by 
100 pigeons is valued at $5.00. Its immediate eftect depends 
npop the quantity of soluble matter it contains, and this varies 
much according to its age, the .niode in which it is preserved, &c. 
Thus Davy and Sprengel obtained respectively, of 

Recent, Six months old. After fermentation. 

Soluble matter in ) _„ , ,» ^ « 

Pigeons dung, \ ^3 per cent 16 per cent 8 per cent. 

The soluble matter consists of uric acid, urate, sulphate and 



S18 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

carbonate of ammonia, common salt and sulphate of potaeh; 
— the insoluble part of phosphate of lime, with a little phos- 
phate of magnesia, &c. By fermentation it loses a portion of 
its ammonia. Every farmer should carefully clean his fowl- 
houses, at least once a week, and pack the dung in barrels with 
plaster, dry peat, earth, and a little salt &c ; and in the spring 
BOW it on his wheat at the rate of 300 CAvt to the acre. If 
properly kept it differs but little from guano, for which |50 per 
ton is now paid at our shipping ports. In Michigan, 10 bush- 
els more of wheat to the acre, might in many instances be thu3 
obtained. 

695. We give the following analyses of Guano, chiefly to show 
the composition of what has proved to be the most valuable ma- 
nure in existence ", and the nearer we can cause other manures 
to approach to it, the more perfect will our art become. It is 
merely the dung of salt-water birds preserved in the dry regions 
of the globe, chiefly on the coast of Peru. It has lately been 
stated, from actual measurement, that unless other deposites are 
discovered, and if the demand continues at the present height, 
the whole wiU be exhausted within 9 years. A patent has 
lately been granted in Great Britain for the preparation of an 
equivalent compound, at a lower price, from fish, fish offal, <fec., 
and salts. 

Analysis of 2 specimens of Peruvian Guano. 

"Water, 

Organic matter and Salts of ammonia, 

Sand and Silica, ... 

Phosphoric acid, 

Sulphuric acid, . . - 

Lime, ... 

Magnesia, . « » 

Oxide of iron, 

Potash, 

Soda, 

Chloride of Potasaium, 



(Way.) 




12.57 


13.67 


33G7 


52.97 


].72 


1.42 


20.21 


14,56 


4.00 


2.52 


16.49 


10.38 


0.80 


0.31 


0.22 


0.73 


3.60 


1.42 


4.15 


none 


none 


2.02 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 319 

Chloride of Sodium, - • 2.57 none 

Or the average of per cent 

AmmoDia at ... 17.41 

Phosphate of lime at - - 24.13 

Potash at - - - - 3.50 

These three being the elements chiefly demanded by plants, 
and in -which the soil is apt to be deficient : in Guano, they are 
in the proper state of solubility and combination. 

696. Night Soil, or human excrements, are extensively used 
in Belgium, Germany, China, and other countries ; but the Eng- 
lish and Americans appear to have an insuperable objection to 
manuring with these substances. A few years ago they were 
prepared in Great Britain and in the Ciy of New York, in a dry 
form devoid of smell, and called Poudrette and Urate ; but 
they seem to have gone greatly out of use, probably on account 
of the means taken to render them less obnoxious dispelling the 
gases, so as to reduce the value of the manure below the cost of 
production. The excrement of men living on animal food ia 
richer in nitrogen and phosphates than of those liviiig on veg- 
etables. (See Liebig's Aanimal Chemistry, Note \.) 

697. Urine. It is to the urine, that barn yard manure chiefly 
owes its value, both as regards nitrogen and salts; and yet in 
our Western States how few take any pains to save the liquids • 
or prevent their being afterwards washed out of the dung. Liebig 
denies that there is any available nitrogen in horse dung; and 
practically, it probably is so ; so that with from 3600 to 4000 lbs. 
of fresh horse dung, corresponding to 100 lbs of dry dung, we 
place on the land from 2484 to 3000 lbs of water, of 730 to 900 Iba 
of vegetable matter and altered gall, and also from 100 to 270 of 
salt, and other inorganic substances, a portion of which only are 
soluble ; while in urine, rotted with water, we apply a large 
quantity of nitrogen, as well as of the most valuable salts, and 
these in a dissolved state ready at once to feed the plant, and 
therefore requiring a very small quantity, as we have already 
shown respecting bones. The urine of all animals bears a very 



320 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



strong claeraical resemblance. We give the following table from 
Sj)reng€l showing the composition of Cow's urine when fresh 
(A,) ; putrified alone (B,) ; and when putrified with water (C.) 



Urea, • 

Albumen, - 

Mucus, 

Benzoin acid, 

Lactic acid, 

Carbonic acid, • 

Ammonia, 

Potash, - 

Soda, 

Silica, 

Alumina, 

Oxide of iron. 

Oxide of manganese, 

Lirae, - • 

Magni^sia, 

Chlorine, - 

Sulphuric acid, - 

Phosphoric acid. 

Acetic acid, (vinegar) 

Sulphuretted hydrogeD,- 

Insohible earthy 1 

Piiosphates and carbonates, J 

Water, 



A 


B 


c 


4oeo 


1000 


600 


10 


— 


— 


190 


40 


30 


90 


250 


120 


516 


500 


500 


5256 


16 


1533 


205 


487 


1622 


664 


664 


664 


554 


554 


554 


36 
o 


5 


8 


4 

1 

65 


1 


- 


2 


8 


36 


22 


30 


272 


272 


273 


405 


388 


332 


70 


26 


46 


— 


1 


20 


— 


1 


30 



— 180 150 
92,624 95,442 93,481 



100,000 100,000 10.0000 
It will thus be understood hov^ fresh urine may destroy Yegetation, 
and yet prove beneficial when decomposed. 



Urine of 


Water 

in 

1000 parts 


Solid matter in 1000 parts. 


Averafje 
quantity 
voided 




Organic. 


laorganic. 


Total. 


in 
24 hourj 


Man, 

Horse, 

Cow, 

Sheep, 

P'K, 


930 to 970 
886 to 940 
880 to 930 
930 to 9G0 
920 to 983 


22 to 52 

27 to 79 
50 to 70 

28 to 50 
9 to .56 


8 to 18 30 to 70 
33 to 45 60 to 124 
20 to 47 1 70 to 120 
12 to 20 40 to 70 

9 to 18 18 to 74 


3 lbs. 
3 ? 
40 

? 

5 



It is to the Urea which exists in urine in very much larger 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 321 

quantity than in any other substance, that its beneficial effecta 
are chiefly due. 

Urea is a white salt-like substance, very soluble in water, consisting 
of— 

Per cent. 
Carbon, .-,--. 20.O 

Hydrogen, . « . - . 6.6 

Nitrogen, - • • - - - 46.7 

Oxygen, ..... 26.7 

Besides which, when the urine begins to ferment, this substance 
changes entirely into carbonate of ammonia. As this rapidly escapes 
into the air, the urine must be kept in covered vessels, and plaster, peat, 
sulphuric acid, (fee, may be mixed with it ; but burnt lime must not be 
brought into contact with it 

There are various modesof preserving the liquid manures of the bam 
yard, such as tanks, sawdust, <fcc.; but probably, in all respects, the best 
is the simple plan invented by Mr. Mechi, of England. This consists 
of a shallow, water-tight cellar under the stable, with a floor made of 
scantlings laid an inch and a half apart from each other, so that the dung 
adn urine fall below, and are preserved till carried to the field. It is of the 
utmost importance to the farmer to preserve this liquid ; and if one 
must be lost, it ought to be the solid. 

699. Good Bark Yard Manure, then, is a mixture of 
dung, urine, and straw, kept from the rain and sun, decomposed 
to a certain extent; and its value, per ton, must depend equally 
on the various proportions of these matters which it contains ; 
the food of the auiiuals; and the state of the decomposition, 
(fee. 

Analysis of barn yard manure, just previous to being ap- 
plied, at New Castle-upon-Tyne, England. (Richardson:) 

Fresh. 
Water, ..... 64.96 

Organic matter, ..... 24.71 

Inorganic salts, ..... 10.33 

Dried at 212°. 
Carbon, ...... 37.40 

Hydrogen, ..... 5.27 

Oxygen, ...... 25.52 

Nitrogen, ..... 1.76 

Ash, ...... 30.05 

21 



322 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Inorganic matter, 1. Poition soluble in water. 



Potash, 


3.22 


Sulphiu-icAcid, - 


- 3.27 


Soda, - 


2.73 


Chlorine, 


3.15 


Lime, 


0.34 


Silica, 


- OA'4 


Magnesia, 


0.26 






2. Portions soluble in 


muriatic acid only. 




Silica, - 


27.01 


Caibonate of Magnesia, 


- 1.63 


Pliosphate of Litne, - 


7.11 


Sand, - 


30.99 


Phosphate of Magnesia, - 


2.26 


Carbon, "- 


- 0.83 


Phosphate of Iron, - 


4.68 


Alkali and los?, 


3.14 


Carbonate of Linac, 


9.34 







Thus, of 1 00 lbs. of bam yard manure, well made, well taken 
care of, and hauled on the field, 65 lbs. are pure water; of the 
remaining 35 lbs., 25 are inert carbonaceous matter, only ser- 
viceable as a source of carbonic acid, leaving only 1 per cent, 
of inorganic substances, and 0.6 of nitrogen, as true fertilizing 
matters. Of this 10 per cent, only 3 are of much value either 
as regards their commercial price or relative value. But the 
above manure is of extraordinary richness when compared with 
what we are in the habit of applying in the Western States. 
Ours is generally thrown out of the stables, every shower pene- 
trating through it, and carrying into the next ditch whatever 
there may be soluble in water ; then, through spring and sum- 
mer, the heat of the sun and fermentation drives off all gases 
as formed ; and when, at much toil and expense, we apply it, 
we find nothing which can feed a plant or assist it to grow. 
The "black water" found round manure heaps, where there hap- 
pens to be a hole in the ground, is sufficient proof of this. The 
peat and marl of our marshes are much more valuable than 
SMcA dung. 

As this a point of great practical and economical importance, the 
teacher ought to imprsss it especially on the minds of his pupils, and 
may exhibit the effect of water and heat on fresh manure before them. 

We strongly recoranieiid all farmers who take the troub'e to haul their mnirnro 
on to their soil, to save it either on Mr. Mechi's plan, or to have a cheap shed near the 
door of the sta'ile into wliich it can be pitched, raking care to use sufficient straw, 
eawduflt, peat, &c., to absorb all the liquids. One load of such dung is proved to b« 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 323 

CqOiil to at least eightjthat have been exposed. The best mode of sanng sheep manure 
is to keep the sheep under sheds, giving sufficient straw to keep them clean. Not 
only is much manure tlius saved, but less food is corsunied, and the sheep are much 
more profitable. {Ste FariKer's Companion and Uurticulural Gazette, vol. 1, p. 6, 

700. In America, the European mode of making composts of barn 
yard manures and otiier substances is not much employed. It is not 
only a greater expense of raiuuial labor, and lower value of produce 
•which forbid it. but there are seridis reasons for believing that with our 
very hoi summer climate, and comparative want of showers, composts 
will not act as effectively with us as they do in the Eastern Hemisphere. 
The subji'ct, however, does not appear to have becD yet tested by ex- 
periment, and we can only speak theoretically. 

There are many other sources of animal manures enjoyed in various 
parts of the world, but which at present are of uo practical iuttrest to 
Western farmers. 

701. MrNER.iL Manures. 

By this term we meiin all substances of an inorganic nature, 
all of which are derived, either directly or indirectly, from the 
6oil, such as wood and coal ashes, plaster, &c.. 

Wood Ashes. These are the remains of trees, after the or- 
ganic or vegetable matter has been consumed (di-iven off in the 
shape of gas,) by fire ; and consequently, while they all bear a 
general resemblance, they differ much in the relative proportion 
of the constituents, according to the trees and soils from which 
they are derived. As manures they have a two fold action ; 
(a,) they supply to the plant the inorganic constituents which 
it requires; ('i,j they act chemically as solvents upon other in- 
soluble salts already in the soil; or they neutralize acids, &c. 

702. When we have burnt a tree and collected the ashes 
we find that they consist of two portions, those that are soluble 
in water and those that are insoluble. The average quantity of 
ashes from 100 parts of dry oak, beech, birch, &c^ is 2.87. 100 
parts of such ashes afford 13.57 parts soluble; 86.43 parts in- 
soluble, the latter being left behind at our ash works, while the 
soluble have been boiled down and exported as potash. Pine 



324 AGBICtTLTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

wood (dry,) affords only 0.83 in 100 parts of ashes; of whicb 
50 are soluble, 50 insoluble. Wheat straw yields 4.40 in 100 
parts, 19 per cent, being soluble, 81 insoluble. 

Composition of tlie ashes of hard wood, (oak, beech, birch, 
&c^ (A) ; of Pine, (Fimcs abieSy) (B) ; and of wheat straw, 
(C). (Dana.) 



100 parts of soluble contain 


A, 


B. 


c. 


Carbonic Acid, 


22.70 


13.50 




Sulphuric Acid, 


6.43 


6.90 


0.3 


Muriatic Acid, 


1.82 




13.0 


Silex, 


95 


2.00 


35.6 


Potash and Soda, 


67.96 


69.70 


50.0 


Water, 




7.90 




100 parts of the insoluble contain. 


A. 


B- 


C. 


Carbonic Acid, 


35.80 


21.50 




Phosphoric Acid, 


3.40 


1.80 


1.20 


Silex, 


4.25 


13.00 


75.00 


Oxide of Iron, 


0.52 


22.30 


2.50 


Oxide of Manganese, 


215 


5.50 




Magnesia, 


3.55 


8.70 




Lime, 


. 35.80 


27.20 


5.80 


Charcoal, 






15.50 



The following gives a comparative view of the entire ashes 
of the oak (A,) ; elm (B,) ; Beech ( C,) ; and fir tree (pinus 
gylvestris,) ; (By) ; analysed in Europe. (Johnston.) 





A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


Potash, 


8.43 


21.92 


15.83 




Soda, 


5.65 


13.72 


2.88 


9 97 


Lime, 


75.45 


47.80 


63 33 . 


46.15 


Magnesia, 


4.49 


7.71 


11.29 


13.46 


Oxide of Iron, 


0.57 


0.38 


0.79 


3-26 


Phosphoric Acid, 


3.46 


3.62 


3.07 


4.49 


Sulphuric Acid, 


1.16 


1.28 


1.35 


3.03 


Chloiine, 


0.01 




0.14 


0.71 


Silicn, 


0.78 


307 


1.32 


8.38 


Percentage of ash in 


the dry ? 








hard wood. 


5 






0.143 



It is thus obvious that, by leaching, little eke is removed than 



AGRICtJLTUBAfjEXT-BOOK. S25 

potash, soda, and sulphuric aeid, (the carbonic ackl \>emg a pro- 
duct of combustion, and of no intrinsic v^ue) ; and when ashes 
are thus separated on a large scale, a notable quantity of thd 
alkalies remains behind. Though the refuse is not immediately 
soluble, it will become available to plants in the soil by chemical 
action, and the power which roots appear to possess of decom- 
posing mineral matter; while such alkalies as remain will act on 
the silica, and form soluble silicates for grass and the stalks of 
grain. 

In leaching, more or less lime is always added for the pur- 
pose of depriving the potash of its carbon, and rendering it 
caustic, so that the common leached ashes are richer in lime than 
before the process commences. According to Dana, a bushel of 
good ashes contains about 5^ pounds of real potash. In leach- 
ing ashes, generally about one peck of lime is added to each 
bushel of ashes, and as it loses no bulk during the operation, a 
cord of leached ashes contains about the following proportions 
— allowing an average of 4^ lbs. per bushel to be leached 
out: — 

lbs. 

Phosphoric acid, • - - 117 

Silei, . - - 146 

Oxide of iron, - - - 17 

Oxide of manganese, - - 51 

Magnesia, - - » -119 

Carbonate of lime, including that added in leaching, - 3072 

Potash combined with silica, • - - 30 

Spent ashes therefore belong to the class of carbonates ; and 
to the farmer are worth very nearly as much as the unleached- 

In nearly the whole range of soil«, ashes are beneficial to 
cultivated plants; but much more so on sandy and gravelly 
lands than on clay, which being chiefly formed of granite 
rocks naturally contain potash. We have also seen, in the 
analyses of plants, that certain genera, such as turnips, carrots, 
potatoes, beets, ckc, contain a very laige amount of the alka- 



326 agricultuiAl text-book. 

lies; to such therefore ashes are found to be an essential ma- 
nure. But the immediate benefit of such an application is 
most perceptible upon leguminous plants, such as clover, peas, 
beans, &c. Applied to grass land, as a top dressing, it roots 
out the moss, and promotes the growth of white clover, where 
it is indigenous to the soil. On Red clover, it will act more 
certainly in connection with plaster. If applied in large doses 
to poor thin soils it is believed to act injuriously by causing a 
rapid disappearance of the organic matter, but this may be pre- 
vented by the use of peat, barn-yard manures, (fee, at the same 
time. 

In connection with all wood-ashes is a large quantity of 
charcoal, and imperfectly bxirned carbonaceous matter, which 
also add to the value of the manure. 

Unleached ashes act at once, most rapidly and powerfully; 
leached ashes act more slowly, but continue to act for many 
years after being applied. In the large heaps of such ashes, 
as everywhere accumulate in the west around the asheries, we 
neglect a most useful source of fertility ; and where they have 
thus lain for a length of time, they are probably, to a consider- 
able extent, again rendered soluble. Their effect on the me- 
chanical condition of the soil is also w^orthy of notice. They 
render sands more compact and retentive of water, while they 
separate and render friable, heavy clays. 

In practice, they should always be placed in the soil, where 
the roots can come in contact with them. 

It is a general custom to apply ashes to com, on the surface 
of the ground, but in this way the plant can receive no benefit 
except from the little that is soluble and is carried down by 
rain ; but placed in the ground previous to planting, the roots 
and chemical action will afford many elements not available in 
the other way. The only advantage of placing ashes on the 
surface is the protecting of the plant against grubs. The seed, 
however, should not come in immediate contact with the ashes» 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 327 

Prof. Way lias la'ely ascertained tliat all clay soilfi contain a double 
Bilicate of alumina and one of the alkalies or alkaline earths, as : — 

Soda, II Lime, 

Totasli, II Magnesia, 

Ammonia. 

vhich is slowly soluble, but sufficiently so to supply what plants re- 
quire ; and that these silicates, without exception, are capable of ab- 
sorbing and retaining ammonia; and, what is still more important, 
some of them have the faculty of abstracting ammonia from the air, 
" Whenever a salt of ammonia or potash reaches the soil, and gets dis- 
tributed through it, a change occurs — a double silicate of alumina and 
ammonia is formed, and the salt which was added no longer exists 
there. The ammonia or potash henceforth exists in the soil only in 
the form of silicate, and is presented to the roots of a plant only in 
that form, or in the form of carbonate derived from it by the action of 
carbonic acid in the soil. And inasmuch as all average soils possess 
this property of conveisiou in more than the degree necessary for the 
quantity <^f manure which reaches them, the inference is obvious and 
incontestable, that nature has given to the soil this power for the spe- 
cific purpose of preparing the food of plants, and we then have the soil 
occupying a place intermediate between that of mere dead matter, and 
the living organism of plants." We can only thus slightly mention 
this most important and beautiful discovery ; and refer the reader to 
Prof. Way's own writings in the Jour, of Royal Agricul. Soiy. of Eng- 
land, vol. xiii, <tc. 

703. Lime is everywhere an essential of a fertile soil, and in 
Great Britain is more extensively used than any other mineral 
substance. It is applied in a variety of forms, as (a,) carbon- 
ate of liine — lime rock — (44 lbs, of carbonic acid and 51 lbs. 
of lime;) (b,) the same lime rock burned,. and the carbonic 
acid driven oftj when it becomes caustic, but again absorbs car- 
bonic acid and moisture rapidly from the air when it again re- 
turns to a carbonate, or is " slaked ;" (c,) Gypsum, Plaster, 
Sulphate of lime, (d,) Phosphate of lime, as in bones, <fcc., of 
which we have already spoken, (e,) Silicate of lime, existing 
in many rocks and earths ; (f,) Mai-ls ; (g,) Chalk, which ia 
another form of carbonate of lime, chiefly found in England ; 
(h,) Magnesian limestone, the base of which is lime, with a 



^8 AGBlctLTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Varying proportion of magnesia. Of these, only common 
lime, plaster and ii^8| ^e of present interest to us in this part 
of tlie country. 

Lime rocks are rarely pure, and tliey vary mucli in tlicir ex- 
act composition. It is believed that those of Michigan have not 
yet been analyzed. The following are specimens from Seneca 
county, N. Y., examined by Mr. Delafield, 





NO. 1. 


NO. 2. 


NO. 3. 


NO. 4. 


Insoluble sand and clay. 


6.7 


150 


4.0 


78.0 


Alumina and peroxide of iron. 


1.4 


23.0 


26.0 


9.0 


Carbonate of lime, 


■ 90.0 


53.5 


60.0 


11.0 


Magnesia, 


1.5 


28 


5.5 


2.0 


Oxide of manganese. 


none. 


none. 


1.0 




Soluble saline matter, 


1.4 


1.2 


24 




Phosphoric acid. 


trace. 


trace. 


O.l 





(Trans, of N.H . AgricuU Socy., vol. x, p. 611.) 

The following are analyses of English lime rocks made by 
Prof. Johnston, in their unburned and bmxed states :■ — 

UNBURNED. 
Carbonate of lime, 
Sulphate of lime. 
Carbonate of naagnesia, 
Aluminaand oxide of iron. 
Phosphate of lime, 
Silica, 

BURNED. 
Lime, ... 

Magnesia, 
Sulphuric acid, 
Phosphoric acid, 
Aluminaand oxide of iron. 
Silicate in the state of silicate, 
Carbonic acid and moisture, - 
(Johnston on the use of lime in AgricitUure,Y>. 243.) 

We shall shortly mention the effect of burned and slaked 
lime upon the land. 

1, Mechanical*, it opens and renders free, stiff clays, and coa- 



NO. 1. 


NO. 2. 


94.86 


95.89 


0.23 


0.32 


1.26 


0.54 


0.73 


1.20 


1 


? 


2.92 


2.05 


NO. 1. 


NO. 2. 


89.93 


88.85 


1.02 


0.43 


022 


0.30 


T 


? 


1.23 


1.98 


4.92 


3.39 


2.68 


5.05 



AOiy CULTURAL TEXT-BOOBT. 329 

Bolidates sands. 2. Chemical, (a,) increases the fertility of all 
soils in which it does not already abound ; anfl especially of te- 
nacious, moist soils and those containing much inert Vegetable 
matter ; (b,) it improves the quality of the crop ; (c,) it increa- 
ses the eftects of manure, calls into action that which is dormant, 
and less manures needs afterwards be applied ; (d,) alters the na- 
tural produce of the land by killing some plants and favoring the 
growth of others — it kills moss and sour grasses and brings up 
sweet and tender herbage with clovers — wheat has a thinner 
skin, and yields more flour — runs less to straw — peas and beans 
are of better quality, and so with most plants ; (e,) it hastens 
the maturity of the crop ; (f,) it renders the whole country more 
healthy, and plants less subject to diseases. 

Lime, indeed, can scarcely be applied judiciously to any soil 
•without benefit ; but it requires care and experience acting as it 
does with a varying effect under different circumstances. 

The quantity of lime which ought to be added to a soil is of 
course a question of experiment and practice. Theoretically 3 
per cent of lime (finely disintegrated) at least, ought to be 
present in a soil which contains an ordinary proportion of veg- 
etable matter and of the other food of plants. In order to add 
1 per cent of lime to the land, the quantity to be laid ojn will 
depend upon the depth. The following table shows the num- 
ber of tons of burned lime as it comes from the kiln, which will 
give one per cent of lime to soils, respectively 3, 6, 9, and 12 
inches in depth. 



If the depth 


of the soil be 


12 ins. 


9 ins. 


6 ins. 3 ins. 


Tons of burned lime 
16 tous give 


, . 


per ctnt 
1 


per Itnt 


per ctnt per ctnt 

2 4 


12 " . 
8 " 
4 " . 


• 


- K 

■ H 


1 

K 
K 


\% 3 
1 2 

Vz 1 



Quantity of quicklime applied per Imperial acre in different 
localities : 



Roxburgh, 


200 


Ayr, 


40 


Carse of Stirling 


54 


South Durham, 


90 


Worcester, 


70 


Flanders, 


S?^ 



330 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

Bush. Years. Bush, a year. When applied. 

200 every 19 or 10)^ to the fallow 

5 or 8 do., or lea 

6 or 9 do 
12 or 8)4 do 

6 or 8 or 10 before grasses <i tares. 

*^|or 4 

Or at the average of 8 or 10 bushels a year per acre. 

Lime is found, in some of its shapes, over a large poition of the Uni- 
ted States ; but so far, its application as burnt lime has been much neg- 
lected. For further information we rtfer the reader to Prof. Johnston's 
Essay on the use of lime in agriculture, 12 mo, pp. 259, Edinburgh, 1849. 

704. Gypsum or Plaster is a Sulphate of lime. 100 lbs of 
common gypsum consist of 4G lbs of sulphuric acid, 33 lbs of 
lime, and 21 lbs of Avater. When it is heated to redness this 
water is driven ofij and the gypsum is very easily reduced to an 
exceedingly fine powder. In this form it is used by masons. 
It dissolves in 500 times its weight of pure water, or 50 gallons 
will dissolve one pound. Thus it is often found in spring wa- 
ter, and in streams which pass through a soil in which gypsum 
exists. In solution with water it is decomposed when mixed 
with fermenting animal or vegetable matter. 

Gypsum acts very differently on different soils and in different 
localities ; at times producing no visible effect whatever ; and at 
others, becoming almost a necessary of profitable cultivation. 

The theory of its beneficial action has long been a subject of 
dispute. The most probable solution is, that to a small extent 
it supplies lime and sulphuric acid to the plant, but is chiefly 
useful by the power it possesses of solidifying and retaining 
the ammonical gases of air and earth. 

Benjamin Franklin first introduced it from France into the 
United States, It was afterwards imported from Nova Scotia ; 
and as New York, and the other Western States were settled, it 
was discovered in abundance. Ohio and Michigan possess large 
beds of it in various localities. It is quarried, and ground in 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 331 

mills; but is supposed to differ in quality, some mines having 
a higher reputation than others, probably in consequence of 
greater purity. That used by masons is said to be ground from 
selected specimens. 

It were interesting to try qi ick lime alonfj side of plaster, so as to as- 
certain the relative effect and profit of eacb. At present, plaster in 
JMichigan is expensive, costing $7.00 loose or $9.00 in barrels per ton 
at the mill ; and most that is used is carried by land either from De- 
troit or Grand Rapids ; while thc-re are few farms in the interior of 
the Stiite which cannot procure excellent marl at httle more expense 
than digging. The lale Dr. Houghton expressed the opinion that upon 
our sandy lands, the shell marl.s, even without burning, would prove 
quite as effective. Of the quantity consumed in this State we have no 
correct statistics. We find that during the year ending June 1853, the 
Central Railroad carried 2,613 tons ; and allowing as much more for the 
Southern Railroad, and for private conveyance, we have a total of .5226 
tons averaging $10 per ton delivered on the farm, which makes a total 
of $52,260 per annum for this one manure. It is very important that our 
marls and peats should be more fully investigated and their effects care- 
fully tried. 

Prof. Johnston states that when mixed with common salt, the 
action of gypsum upon clovers, beans, peas, &c., appears to bo 
greatly increased. 

W. Alexander, of Ballochmyle, Scotland, dressed an apparently worth- 
iest crop of young beans with a mixture of 2 cwt. of gypsum, and one of 
common salt per acre. The effect was almost marvelous, and instead 
of a bad crop, his beans were the admiration of the country. He found 
a sensible effect produced by this mixture even after the beans were in 
flower. 

Plaster act'; as a stimulant, and its tendency is to impoverish 
the soil unless organic and other manures are liberally added. 

Y05. Marl properly means an earthy mixture containing not 
less than 20 per cent of carbonate of lime. If the proportion of 
lime be less than this, the mixture is rather a marly clay, con- 
taining potash or silica in place of lime, as in the Green-sand 
marls of New Jersey, and Silicious marls of Massachusetts. (See 



332 JQRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK, 

§ 117, 118, 119, 120, j9. 37 J Of the true marls, there are 
many varieties, differing both in composition and external char- 
acter; and consequently 'in value. 

The following are analyses of marls in Seneca Co., N. Y. 





No. 1, 


No. 2, 


No. 3. 


Moisture, 


- 4.50 


1.0 


3.48 


Organic matter, 


8.50 


4.20 


1.65 


Insoluble sand. 


. 6.60 


6.0 


5.0 


Carbonate of lime, - 


77.10 


83.33 


83.35 


Magnesia, 


- 2.10 


2.16 


40 


Phosphoric acid.) - 
Alumina, ) 


1.20 


28 


0.86 
200 


Common Salt, 


— 


— 


0.20 


Sulphate of lime, 


— 


50 


— 


Sulphuric acid. 


— 


— 


0.46 



The lime marls appear to be formed in two modes ; (a,) by 
the deposite of lime brought to the surface by springs ; (b^) by 
the accumulation of shells, and minute forms of animal life, or 
Infusoria, often microscopic, with calcareous coverings. "Some 
of these are so minute, that a cubic inch of stone has been cal- 
culated to contain the remains of 41 thousand millions of them 
— and yet deposites composed almost entirely of such remains 
have been met with of 20 and 30 feet in thickness. How very 
striking is it to find the united labors of these invisible creatures 
capable of producing such extraordinary effects ! How very lit- 
tle we really know of what is going on around us !" (Johnston.) 

The marls of Michigan are believed to consist of both these 
kinds, but especially of the latter. We belicTe they have nev- 
er yet been analyzed, but will probably be found rich in phos- 
phoric acid and ammonia. Mr. Delafield states of the New 
York marls above mentioned, that iha poorest \i\\\ afford 25 lbs 
of phosphoric acid to every ton of dry and weathered marl. 
This is equal to 45 lbs of phosphate of lime, a quantity found in 
80 lbs of bone dust, and equal also to what a grazing cow annu- 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 333 

ally takes from the land. The best Michigan marls will proba- 
bly be found much richer than the above— and here is the very 
substance in which our oldest wheat lands are beginning to be 
deficient, (See Oeneaee Farmer, August, 1853,J and yet it is 
allowed to lie neglected and despised in almost every marsh and 
lake. Marls may be applied in two modes, (a,) burned as lime, 
in which respect they do not much differ in eftect from the best 
agricultural lime rocks ; (b,) in the natural state, but dried so aa 
to powder. Like lime they produce a mechanical and chemi- 
cal effect ; the first dift'ering with the soils and the character of 
the marl. The chemical effect consists in actually rendering 
the soil productive of larger crops. The exact mode of acting 
does not appear to be well understood. The observed effects of 
marl and shell sand, in so far as they are chemical, are chiefly 
the following : — They alter the nature and quality ojf the grasses 
when appUed to pasture ; they cover even the undrained bog, 
with a short rich grass — ^they extirpate coai-se grasses and moss, 
and the weeds which infest unlimed wheat fields ; they increase the 
quality and enable the land to grow a better quantity of wheat ; 
they manifest a continued action for many years after they have 
been applied; like the purer limes, they act more energetically if 
aided by the occasional addition of other manure; and like 
them they finally exhaust a soil from which successive crops are 
reaped, without the requisite return of decaying animal or veg- 
etable matter. (Johnston.) 

In practice it is probably best to dig the marl, and leave it to dry and 
disintpgratc for some mouths before applying. One ton and upwards 
may be applied to the acre, and plowed in shallow at the last plowing, 
or worked in with the cultivator. To act eflFectually, lime must be kept 
near the surface, and its constant effort is to sink below the reach of 
roots. 

V06. Salt is chemically composed of the metal sodium, and 
the gas chlorine, chloride of sodium, or called by the older 
chemists muriate of soda. It is procured by evaporating the 



834 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

water of the sea or salt springs, and is rarely found in com- 
merce perfectly pure ; salts of lime and magnesia being mixed 
with it. 

Salt is found in nearly all soils ; in the ashes of all plants ; 
and is necessary for animal life. It has been used in all ages 
and countries as a manui'e, and acts not only as a feeder of 
plants, but chemically as a solvent, and in this latter regard ap- 
pears to be most efficient. In some soils it strengthens the straw, 
but it acts variously in different localities. Theoretically^ it 
ought to prove very efficient in our Western States. Mixed 
with plaster it is said greatly to improve the latter. It must be 
used with care, and not applied directly to the plants. In dry 
climates, where seasonable rains seldom fall, salt will rarely do 
anything but injury. Root crops, and of those, beets, appear to 
be the most benefitted by salt From one to ten bushels may 
be applied to the acre, soAvn broadcast and harrowed in, a few 
days before the seed is sown. In New York, three bushels to 
the acre have been found effective in destroying grubs, cut- 
worms, &c. 

V07. Mud, Muok. This substance is found in great abun- 
dance in many ponds, marshes, &c., and in some localities it 
has been applied with great success as a manure. It necessarily 
varies much in its composition. Mr. Dana analyzed two speci- 
mens in Massachusetts, and he found them to consist of: — 

No. 1. No. 2. 

Soluble Geine, ) ^ • 5. 10 8.10 

' ^ Organic. 



Insoluble Geine, j ^'b**'""' 8.90 6.50 

Salts and Silicates, 86. 84.40 

A cord of No. 1 weighed when dug 6117 lbs., and contained 
solid matter, 3495 lbs.; composed of geine, 495 lbs.; of sili- 
cates and salts, 3005 lbs. The salts of lime were 2^ per cent. ; 
from which we judge that it would prove a vaulable manure. 

Prof. Johnston examined a black mud from Leith Docks, 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 335 

vphich was carted away by the farmers. He found a considera- 
ble quantity of animal matter, with much finely divided silica, 
which were found under the microscope to be infusoria. 

Many mucks will probably be found to contain phosphoric 
acid, ammonia, vegetable matter, sulphur, and salts of lime and 
potash, and if so they are important to the farmer; but in our 
present state of ignorance regarding them, we can only recom- 
mend careful trials. We believe that, in practice, they are usu- 
ally left exposed to the air, after digging, till dry and disinteg- 
rated ; and if dug in the fall, so as to be frozen, they are found 
to be inproved. 

V08. III. Vegetable Manures. 

These are practically of two classes ; (a.) such as are grown 
for the purpose of being plowed in; (b^) and those which are 
collected from other sources, and applied as are ordinary ma- 
nures, e, g. peat, leaves, &c. In the West, the first are employ- 
ed in the shape of buckwheat, clover, and sometimes rye ; and 
in other countries several plants are used for the same purpose ; 
being turned under immediately before flowering. Such plants 
as collect their food chiefly from the air by the leaves, and contain 
much carbon, or those whose roots pierce deep into the subsoil, 
are preferred. Their value is owing to the elements which they 
supply directly to the next crop ; and they are estimated accord- 
ing to the amount of nitrogen, carbon, and inorganic matter 
which they contain. In soils deficient in organic matter, such 
manuring is often very profitable when properly applied. The 
mechanical tendency of such applications is, also, to render stitf 
soils more friable. 

In the second division a great variety of substances have been 
used, as straw, chaff, bran, rape cake, sawdust, malt-dust, (fee; 
but, in this country. Peat promises to prove the most impor- 
tant. Peat is a partially decayed moss or sphagnum^ and is a 
real coal in an imperfect state. It is found in marshes and wet 



336 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



places, and is sufficiently abundant througlxout Michigan and 
the other Western States. Like all other similar substances, it 
is subject to many variations in its composition. Some speci- 
mens contain a large proportion of ammonia, and they all ap- 
pear to be rich in salts and carbon. 

Analysis of peat from Paisley Moss, Scotland, viz : an upper 
peat, (A ;) an under peat of the same bed, (B ;) and of the 
Dutch ashes, formed of peat, (B.) (Johnston.) 









A. 


B. 


C. 


Organic matter, (charred peat,) 


- 


54.12 


3.02 


25.77 


Sulphates and carbonates of potash.) 








Boda, and magnesia, soluble 


iuV 


6.57 


5.1 


2.78 


■water, 




) 








Alumina, soluble in acids, 


- 


2.99 


2.48> 
18 66^ 


11.19 


Oxide of iron. 


- 


- 


4.61 


Gypsum, 


- 


- 


10.49 


21.23 


16.35 


Phosphate of lime, 


- 


- 


0,90 


0.40 


1.24 


Carbonate of lime, 


• 


- 


8,54 


3.50 


1.21 


Carbonate of magnesia, 


- 






3.39 


Insoluble siliceous 


matter, - 




10.88 


43.91 
98.36 


37.24 




99.10 


99.17 


Analysis of 


10 varieties 


of Peat from Massachusetts, 


(Dana.) 












Locality. | Salable Oeina. ] Insoluble Geine. 


1 Total Geine. 1 Salts & SUicates. 


1. Dracut, 


14.0 


72.0 




86.0 


14.00 


2. Sunderland, 


26.0 


56 60 




85 60 


14,40 


3. Westborough, 


48.80 


4360 




92.40 


7.60 


4. Hadley, 


34.0 


60.0 




94.0 


6.0 


5. Northampton, 


38.30 


44.15 




82 45 


17.55 


6. 


32.0 


54.90 




86.90 


13.10 


7. 


12.0 


60.85 




72.85 


27.15 


8. 


10.0 


49.45 




59.45 


40.55 


9. 


33.0 


59.0 




92.0 


8.00 


10. 


46.0 


46.80 




92.80 


7.20 



29.41 



55.03 



84.44 



15.53 



Average, 

By the word " Geine" this writer means the vegetable matter of soils, 
also called Humus, Ulmin, <fec., and represented by the symbol C 40, 



aghicultural text-book. 337 

II 16, 11, with, occasionally, an addition of ammonia. The term is 
DOW rarely used in agriculture. 

All Peat shrinks by di7ii:\g, and "wlien perfectly dried at 
240 ° F. loses from 73 to 97 per cent of water. When allowed 
to dry in the air, it still contains about two-thirds of its weight 
of water, and rapidly re^ahsorbs moisture. It shrinks from 
two-thirds to three-fourths of its bulk. Taking these data, 
100 Yiaiis of fresh dug peat, of average quality, contain : — 

Water, - - - 85.0 

Salts of lim6> - - - 0.50 

Silicates, - - - 0.50 

Geine, ' - - 14.0 

Owing to the difficulty of rendering Peat soluble, it has not 
been used in agriculture to the extent it deserves, in its natural 
•state. It is frequently burned (or rather charred.,) and the 
ashes are applied with good effect at the rate of from 50 bush- 
•els to two tons per acre. 

Prof. Norton, says : " They usually contain from 5 to 6 per 
>cent of potash and soda, considerable quantities of lime, niao-- 
nesia, iron, &c., being therefore worth about as much as the 
poorer kinds of wood-ashes. In wet land, Avherc varieties of 
peat abound, which are only decomposed with gi-eat difficulty, 
it is sometimes advisable to burn, them on a large scale for the 
purpose of obtaining the ash as manure. Heaps are made 
at convenient distant^es directly upon the surface of the bog, 
and the fire startei.1 by means of a little dry peat in the 
centre of each heap; as it burns through to the outside, fresh 
peat is dug up and thrown on> and so the process may be kept 
up as long as desirable. It is to be observed as to all vai-ieties 
of ashes, th^t their value is greatly impaired by exposure to the 
weatl^er." But the best mode of using peat is to lay it in cat- 
tle stables, and to mix it with decomposing animal manures* 
wjien it will, if' sufficiently dried, not only absorb the liquids, 
but ij-self updergo fermentation. According to Mr.. Pliinnevv 
22 



338 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

of Lexington, Mass., a cord of fresli dung converts twice its 
bulk of peat into a manure of equal value to itself — tliat is, a 
cord of clear stable dung, composted with two of peat, forms a 
manure of equal value to tbree cords of green dung. 

Mr. S. L. Dana, of Lowell, Mass., wrote a book, a few years since, 
for the purpose of showina that peat mixed with an alkali, in all re- 
spects resembles, and, as a manure, is equivalent in effect to cow dung. 
The cost per cord, at that time, he estimates as : — 

1 Cord peat and digging, - - - $1 .50 

92 lbs. potash at 6 cents, ^5.52 ^ 

Or 61 lbs. soda ash at 4 cents, 2.44 | 

Or 24 bush common wood-ashe.s j- average of alkalies, 3.65 

at 12>^ cents, - - - 3.00 | 

3)10.96 



$3.65 Per cord.... $5.1 5 

Were they really good Iiard-wood-ashes, about 16 bushels would be 
sufficient, but an excess is allowed to compensate for variation. At 
that period, clear cow dung was purchased by the Print works at an 
average cost of 17 4 5 cents per bushel, or $17.45 cents per cord, at 
times even higher. 

We must he e complete our very imperfect remarks on manures, as 
the subject is sufficiently extensive to fill a much larger volume than 
this. The teacher will find all that he can require in the American 
M''.ck Book, by D. J. Browne, 12 mo. pp. 429, published by C. M. Sax- 
ton, New York, 1852. 

For the sake of convenience, however, we add a list of the articles 
used in various countries as manures, designating with an a!^terisk (*) 
such as can probably be of service in the United States. 



T. Animal Manures. 
Blood.* 
flash* 

(Dried flesh, from South America.) 
Bones.* 
Skin. 
Wool. 
Hair.* 
Feathers. 
Woollen rnffs," (England.) 

Mill refuse,* (England.) 

Fish, (New England, ttc.) 
Blubber, and other fish refuse,* 



Refuse of Lard-Boilers,* (Cincin- 
nati, &c.) The whole hog is 
lioiled by a heavy pressure of 
•steam, and all, but the oil. left as 
a dry power.) 

Other refuse of Pork Packers.* 

Bone Black, or animal charcoal, 
from Sugar Refineries.* 

Refuse of Bone and Ivory Turners, 
(fee. 

Dung of Horses.* 
" Cows* 
" Sheep.* 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 



339 



Dung of Hogs.* 
Men.* 
(Pudrette.)* 
Droppings of Birds.* 
Giiiiio.* 

Urine of all kinds.* 
(Urate.)* 

Shells, (marine and fresh.*) 
Infusoria in mucii.* 
Coral sand*'? 

Scutch, (CxUie maker's refuse.)^ 
liefusefrom Tanneries.* 

II. Mineral. 

Carbonate of Ammonia, 

Nitrate of Ammonia. 

Muriate of Ammonia. 

Sulph'ite of Ammonia. 

Water from (Jas works.* 

Lim3 from Gas works.* 

Coal Tar. 

Wood ashes, (unleached.)* 
do (leaclied.)* 

Coal ashes. ( Anthraoite.)* 
do (Bituminous.)* 

Ashes of S>3a-weed, (Kelp, or Baril- 
la.) 

Soap makei's waste, (Soda.)* 

Bitterns, ( Refuse of bait works.)* 

Burnt clay.* 

Rubbish of old buildings.* 

Coprolitos, (a mineral phosphate.) 

Apatite, (a mineral phosphate.)* 

Lime, (carbonate of.)* 

Burnt lime.* 

Sulphate of lime, (plaster.)* 

Phosphate i>f lime. 

Silicate of lime. 

Nitrate of lime. 

Marls, (Calcareous.)* 

Potash. 

Nitrate of Potash, (Saltpetre.) 

Potash Marls, (G-reensaud.)'* 

Soda. 

Chloride of sodium, (common salt)* 

Nitrate of soda, (Peruvian Salt- 
petre ) 

Sulphate of soda, (Glauber salts.) 

Magnesia. 

Sulphate of magnesia, ( Epsom 
salts.) 



Silica, (Sand.)* 

Sulphuric acid. 

Clay, or .sand, of Granite, Green- 
stone, Serpentine, and Basalt 
Rocks.* 

III. Vegetable Manures. 
Straw.* 
Chaff.* 

Leaves of phnts and trees.* 
Spoiled hay.* 
Saw-dust,* 
Charcoal « 

Vegatable matter, chiured.* 
Spent Tan, (H|)p ars to act specifi- 

cnlly on strawberries.)* 
Apple Pomace.* 
Weeds * 
Cotton Refuse.* 

do Seeds.* 
S.ems of Flax.* 
Refuse of water of flax mills,* 
Bran. 

Rape Cake. 
Ra|>e Dust. 
Cake of Linseed. 

do Poppy seed. 
At Cocoa nut. 
Refuse of other oil-seeds. 
Peat.* 
.Sea- weed,* 

Tops it leaves of cultivated plants.* 
Soot.* 

To PLOW IN — GUEEX Maxuees. 
Red Clover.* 
Buckwheat.* 
liye.* 

Corn, (Maize.)* 
Turni] s. 
White Lupines. 
\^etih or Tares. 
Rape. 

White Mu.stard. 
Vine twigs, (for Viuejards.)* 
Malt-dust. 
Refuse of Starch manufactories.* 

Tiiere are a f'w other expensivt) 
salts occasionally irsed in very hi"li 
farming, but they are .scarcely worth 
mentioning. (See Johiistoii's Ex- 
perimental Agr culture, 1849.) 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



PLOWING. 



V09. Plowing is merely a means resorted to for stirring up 
the soil, and rendering it friable in order that it may receive the 
seed. Di2;ging was probably the original mode of performing 
this operation, but as this is very laborious, although very eftect- 
ive, some sort of plow appears to have been invented as soon as 
oxen or horses were employed in agricnltttre. The history of 
the plow is the history of the art ; for so intimately are good 
crops dependent upon good plowing, that just in proportion as 
this implement has been improved so has the product of the earth 
increased in quantity. But it is only of late years that this all 
important implement has been formed on true mechanical prin- 
ciples ; and, with the exception of Great Britain and America^ 
nearly all the world still cling to the use of antiquated and in- 
efficient formr, nor can it yet be said that either the plow or 
the mode of using it are fully undei'stood. The English and 
Americans form and use the plow on different principles, the 
first endeavoring to lay an unbroken farrow, the latter trying to' 
break or pulverize the soil in the operation ;, while the proper 
depth of plowing in different classes of soils is very little under- 
stood by practical men. Notwithstanding the great skill with' 
which the best American plows are made, there is still a wide' 
field of improvement open in both these respects. Within a 
very few years, many efforts have been made to plow by steam,. 
or by horse power, indirectly applied; and a Canadian is atthia- 
moment perfecting a machine in England ; while there is one' 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 341 

in successful operation in that country •\vhiela may be •worked 
either by steam or liorse power. This is not strictly jilowing, 
in the usual sense of the word, but turning up the soil by rotary 
cutters. Should such machines become generally available they 
will probably revolutionize agriculture, as the introduction of the 
Spinning Jenny &c. revolutionized the manufacture of Cotton 
and Woolen cloths ; since it will be impossible for small farmers, 
Avorking on the old plan, to compete with large capitalists, with 
extensive farms, doing all their work by steam and other ma- 
chinery. As however, the imj)rovements introduced into man- 
ufactories have not only benefitted the world in general, but 
supplied work for a very much larger number of laborers, so 
may we expect this revolution in art to produce the same efiect 
in agriculture- 

710. Till within a century, all plows were made of wood with 
wrought iron plates &c, nailed on, for the land-side, mould-board, 
and point. In Great Britain, they were generally prepared with 
one or two wheels at the end of the plow-beam, as they still are 
in France and Germany, and were drawn by 4 to 8 horses ; or 
by a pair of horses Avitli the addition of four, and sometimes of 
six oxen, with one man to hold, and two to drive. About 1763, 
James Small, of the county of Berwick, Scotland, a manufactu- 
rer of Agricultural implements, turned his attention to the im- 
provement of plows. In experimenting, he made the mould- 
board of soft-wood, by means of which it soon appeared where 
the pressure was the most severe, and where there was the 
greatest friction. He likewise applied true mechanical j^rinciples 
to the subject ; introduced cast iron in place of Avood ; and so 
lightened the draft that two horses were quite as efficient as the 
heavy teams previously emplo3'ed. This appears to have been the 
first iuA'ention of the light and elegant cast-iron si(Jj»y plows Avhich 
are now every Avhere in use in this country. (Sir John Sinclair, in 
his Account of the systems of husbandry adopted in Scotland, 
1812, gives the full history of this invention.) This introduc- 



342 AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 

tion of an improved plow lias not only had a most favorable 
bearing upon agricullnre in every respect, by reducing the cost 
of working the soil, and doing the work in a much better man- 
ner, but it is very doubtful, whether a very large portion of 
America could yet have been settled, if so many animals and 
men had been requisite to perform the operation. Plows are 
made so as to be adapted to every sort of soil and work, and 
are arranged upon well known and accurately ascertained prin- 
ciples. These principles every farmer should understand ; but 
as this knowledge presujiposes an acquaintance Avith mathemat- 
ics and mechanics we cannot enter upon it here. 

'ill. The object of the plowman is so to turn over the soil as. 
to render it the best adapted for the growth of plants with the 
least expenditure of labor and time. If the soil is so turned as 
merely to be reversed, lying, as it were, in long ribbotis, friabil- 
ity is not attained, but must be produced by subsequent opera- 
tions, with the harrow, cultivator, &c. If the soil is so broken, 
that part is reversed, and part is not, weeds are tempted to grow 
and the crop will be uneven. If there are inequalities, and deep 
holes, some seeds will be buried too deeply, others will be too 
shallow. The best plowmen, therefore, endeavor, while they 
separate the soil, entirely to reverse it, to lay the furrows per- 
fectly even on the surface, and to plow as deeply, and as great a 
width at the same time as possible. In narrow furrows, the soil 
will be rendered friable most eftectuall}-, but time will be lost. 

Depth is of great importance in successful agriculture, under 
nearly all circumstances. There may be subsoils of such a char- 
acter that it would be injudicious at once to turn up much of 
them ; but by annually plowing an inch or so deeper, by de- 
grees great depth is attained without injury. Deep plowing 
acts in the same manner as thorough draining, but to a less ex- 
tent. It gives the roots of j^lants a larger field from which to 
gather their food ; it allows surface water to escape ; atmospher- 
ic manures to be collected instead of running off; and it aftbrds 



AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOK. 343 

a more equal and probably a higher temperature and greater 
command of moisture. A field plowed three or four inches 
deep is easily exhausted; while such manures as are applied, 
soon escape beneath the reach of the roots ; and, in many soils, 
in process of time, the ploAv passing at one equal and shallow 
depth forms an artificial and impervious hard-pan. According 
to Mr. Delafield in 1850, in Seneca county New York, "The 
evidence of every successive year, has clearly manifested the 
economy and profit of deep tillage; the mechanical operations 
on the soil require less force and labor ; less seed is necessary ; 
and all manures produce their full eft'ect. Many of the best in- 
formed farmers are firm in the opinion that deep plowing and 
subsoil plowing are more effective on wheat soils when a judi- 
cious system of drainage has been adopted ; for though deep 
tillage by the plow allows the roots of plants to seek their food 
at a greater depth from the surface, yet they will extend them- 
selves (in some soils,) to the cold influences of retained waters, 
where drains do not exist, and be deprived of that full measure of 
health and vigor which the principle of deep tillage is intended 
to afford." 

Tbe Jointer Ploio, invented iu Michigan, is forcing its way into very 
general use. It is a miniature or small plow, which can be attached and 
detached from the beam of any other plow at pleasure, and is placed a 
short distance in advance of the main plow. It turns over 2 to 4 inch- 
es of the soil which is buried deeply and neatly under the furrow 
formed bj the succeeding plow ; and with four oxen or horses, 10 to 12 
inches can easily be reacheJ. (See Transactions of Michigan State A(,- 
ricuUural Society, Vol, iv, p 147.) 

712. Horses cannot draw a plow for any very great distance 
without stopping. A length of 250 yards is believed to be the 
best for the size of a field, allowing the horses to rest at the 
turning. The following table shows the quantities of land 
plowed at different speeds, at given breadths of the furrow-slices. 
(Stephens.) 



344 



AGRlCULTtlRAL TEXT-BOOK. 



per hour 



in 8». 



a wuUvtCl 
hours. 



bieiidLli ot 
furrow plowed 



tiuautity or luuu plowed 
in 8V3 hours at tlint speed. 



Alilts 
1 

2 



Vliles 


, Yiirds 


8 


1248 


8 


440 


12 


642 


12 


220 


17 


808 


16 


880 


26 


332 


24 


1320 




A 


K 


p 





3 


I 





3 


14 


1 





21 


I 





34 


1 


2 


2 


1 


2 


28 


2 


1 


3 


2 


1 


42 



Table showing the Gompaiative amount of time lost in turnings while 
plowing long and short ridges. (Stephens.) 



I.eni,'tli 


1 Breiidtli . f 


1 TiHie lost 


Time (Je\oteU 


Hours of 


of ririfTP. 


furrow slice. 


1 in turning. 


to plowing. 


work. 


Yards 


Inches 


H M. 


H M 


H 


78 


10 


5 11 


4 49 


10 


149 


<■ 


2 44 


7 16 


" 


200 


" 


2 1 


7 59 


" 


212 




1 561^ 


8 3K 


" 


274 


" 


1 22 


8 32 


" 



"713. There are a variety of modes of ploAving to suit the nature 
of the soil and season of the year; though this diversity is more 
practised in Europe than in America.. (For illustrations see- 
Stephen^s Farmer^s Guide, vol. 1 p. lYl-186,) 



FINIS. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



[ The figures at the end of each line refer to the Scc'.ions.] 



Acclimatin? of p'ants 131. 
Acetic ucid in air 32. 
Agriculture, meaning of 1. 
" divisions ot 2, 3. 

" art and science of 1. 

" an of 24, 25. 

Agricultural Schools, 10. 

" education, 13. 

Air, 26. 

" chemical composition of 26. 
Atmospliere, 26. 

weiffht of 2rt. 
Aninaonia in air 28, 30, 31. 

" in rain 29. 

" absorption of hy plants 42. 

Arsenic in sprinjjs 70. 
Alumina, 80. 
Ash of plants 99, 702. 
Animal plants limits of ',29, 130. 
Analysis of sea water 56. 

" SchnylUill .=.7. 

" Dead Sea 58. 

" Salt Lake 59, 60. 

" Grenalle Gl. 

" Hartford 62. 

" Horse chestnut 66. 

" Barnyard manure 91. 

" Clay soils 112. 

•« Cotton lands 113. 

" Fertile and barren soils 114. 

" Michie;nn soil 115. 

" New Jersey " 116. 

•• Marl 117, 119,120. 

" Green s.ind 48. 

" Wheat 159, 162, 166, 167. 

•' Bran 1C5. 

" Flour 170. 

" wheat soils 173. 

" rye 208, '>.v9, 210. 

" rye straw 212. 
— " erffot 225. 

" barley 233, 234, 235. 

" barley straw 239 

" Indian corn 28 1, 283, 284. 

" rich corn soils 291. 

" rice 322,323. 324. 

" buckwheat 233, 337. 

" millet 348. 

" leguioinuus plants 355. 



Analysis of clover, 410, 411,412, 413, 414, 
415, 416. 

'* t)ea and pea straw 356, 357, 358. 

" ■gra'^ses 391, 385, 387, 388, 389. 

" sanfoin 425. 

" chickory, 428, 429. 

" turniu soils 435. 

" turnip 437, 442. 

" rape 458. 

" potato 463, 465. 

" Jerusalem artichoke 471,473, 

" parsnip 485, 487. 

" carrot 5' to 503. 

" beet 517-520. 

" sweet ]iotato 531, 

" liops 542, 543. 

« musk-melon 561, 666. 

" cucumber 562, 666. 

" tobacco 571, 572. 

" flax 600, 605. 

" hemp-seed 61.5, 616. 

" " scutchinps 617. 

" broom corn 626. 

" apple 635. 638. 

" pear-wood and leaves 643, 641, 

" peach leaves 648. 

" " tree 649. 

" cherry leaves 653. 

" grape leaves 656, 

" gooseberry 658. 

" rhubarb 660, 662. 

" tonia'o 663. 

" egg plant f.63. 

" water-melon 666. 

" vegetable oyster 667. 

" endive 667. 

" celery 667. 

" beef and blood 682, 683. 

" mineral phosphates 687. 

" cow dung 691. 

" horse dung 691, 69-2. 

" sheep and hog dung 693. 

" pigeon dung 664. 

" guano 695. 

" cow's urine 697. 

" barn-yard manure 699, 

" wood-ashes 702. 

" lime rock 703. 

" marls 705. 



peat 708. 



\ 






A 



cccxlvi.] 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Animal, an apparatus of combiistiou 672. 

" meat, tallow, skin of 6^1. 
Apple, varieties of, general leniarks 634. 
" analysis of pulp and skiu of Swaar 

635, 636, 638, 6:-:9. 
" comparison of wth peach, pear,cher- 

ry and potato 639. 
" fattening quilities 639. 
" analysis ot sweet apple tree 610. 
" tree, leaves of Early Harvest 641 
Ashes, wood 39), 702. 
" eft'ects of on soils 702. 
" for Indian corn 702, 
Asparagus, properties of ('64. 

B 

Barn-yard manure 91. 

Bread, the effects of ye.ist in 172. 

" of rve 214. 
Barley, soils 173, 210. 

" where cultivated 229. 

" amount raised 231 . 

*' species cultivated 232. 

" analysis of 233. 

" nature of fhe grnin 236. 

" effects of manures on 237. 

" starch in 238. 

" straw, .analysis of 239. 

" value of 240. 

" malt of 241. 

" culinary uses of 242 

" mineral matter it takes from an 
acre 243 

" preparation for sowing 244 

" when known to be ripe 245 

" narvestinpr of216 

" straw for feeding 247 

" to sow grass seed with 248 395 

" weeds in 219 

" fungus on 250 

" insects injurious to 251 

" grown with fli\x 610 
Beans, varieties 3.i2, 358 

" what they require in soil 676 

" varieties grown 370 

" soil fir 371 

" culture 372 

" expense of raising 373 

" yield per acre, 374 

" straw of 375 
Beef, dry, analysis of 682, 683 
Beets, varieties of &c 512 

" what a crop draws from soil 442 

" sugar from 512 

" mangold the 513 

" qualiiios of the root 514 

" peculiar formation of and proper- 
ties 515 

" its value and nses in England 516 

" anal\sis of 517 to 520 

" nutritious matter in 521 

" soil for 522 

" seeding and culture 523 

" gathering, cnre in 524 

" preserving 525 

" yield of crop 526 



Beets uses and value of 527 
" manurts for 628 
" value of 529 
" diseases and insects 5?0 
" beer and vinegar from 531 
Beck Prof 143 

Blood, diy, analysis of 682, 683 
Bread of corn meal 286 
Bones, action of 679 

composition of 6*5 
action of as manures 686 
Birds must be cherished 313 
Buckwheat, species, >Uc 332 
" blue 332 

" where grown, produce &c 332 

" analysis of 333, 334, 337, ?38 

" " grain and straw 335 

" " straw 336 

" its uses 339 

" efftcts of on swine 340 

" qualities of the straw of 341 

" for plowing in green 342 

" soils f.r 343 

" harvesting 344 

" jiFoduce per acre 345 

" legal weight of 346 

Burnet 423 
Broom corn, how introduced 622 

" soil for, management of, and 

yield 623 
" cost of crop 624 
" profit, qualities of the brush 

625 
" analysis of brush and seed 626 



Cabbage, qu;>lities &c 455 

Canary grass 351 

" soil for and culture of 351 
" harvesting and J ield 351 

Cnpillary power 111. 

Carrots, what a crop draws from soil 442, 
458 

order and f imilies of the 498 
culture of, increasing 499 
compared with hav to feed 499 
analysis of 500 to '5113 
compared with parsnips 504 
culture and manure £05, 507 
seed per acre, mode of sowing 506 
digging and preserving 50S 
cost of crop 509 
pectin in 510 
yield per acre 511 

Carbonic acid in the air 26, 34. 

" leaves alisorli 46, 47. 

" favorable to plants 69. 

" action of on soil 113. 

Castor oil plant, remarks on the 583 
" qualities of 584 

" no analysis of 585 

" yield of beans and oil 586 

Cattle, fattening on turnips 419 

Centigrade thermometer 129. 

Celery, analysis of 667 

Chemical rays of light 134. ' 



GENERAL INDEX. 



[cccxlvii. 



Cherry, ooniparison of with apple 639 

" vnrietics CM 

" analysis of k-aves of 653 
Chess 196 
Chickoiy, its qn>ilitios427 

" analysis (if the root of 428, 429 
" fultivatioa of 430 
Clav 80,83. 
Climate 12'. 

'• elements of 124. 
" local and trenoral 125. 
" change ol 126. 
" change of l)y cultivation 127. 
" etfcfts of on sheep lJ9. 
Clover, species &c 407 

" alsvUe 407 

" red 408, 409 

" analysis of410 to 416 

" •' of mots 410 

" hav, yield per acre 411 

" white, analysis of 414, 415,416 

" nutritive value of 417 

" ni:nilircs for 418 

" how sown, amount of seed &c 419 

" when to be cut for hay 4'20 

" savinjr seed 420 

" hay, mode of curing 421 

" diseases of 422 

" other plants resemble 423 
Cockle 196 
Color of toils 104. 

•' expi'rinients on 105. 

" atiects the temperature 1 06. 
Composition of dry air 27. 
Couch grass (Michigan) 384 
Cows, parsnip leaves for 492 

" composition of dung of 69 1 
Cretinism 69. 
Cro|iping, effect of 96, 113. 
Cucumber, composition of 562 

" analysis of 666 

Cultivation, efiiect on climate 127. 
Cut-worm 312 

D 
Daguerreotypes 134. 
l)etroit, rain at I'M. 
Dew, cause of 16, 54. 

E 

Earths 97. 

Egg plant, analysis of 663 
Endive analysis of 6i>7 
Ergot composition of 225 
Evaporation Ml. 

F 
Fall wheat, varieties of 156. 
Farmer, jio^tion of 7. 

ohjeet of 8. 
Fahrenheit's thernio^neter 129. 
Fields, adviintiigcs of the right size 712 
Fish as manure 688, 689 
Flax, species 598 

" cultivation ilecreasing 599 

" analvsisof 6(10, Ii05 

•' eff.cts of steeping 603 

« analysis of seed 604 



Flax special mantires for 606 

what cultivated for 606 

soil, sowing and culture 607 

manure for, gi.tliering 607 

yield of nbre and seed of 608 

cost of crop t09 

growing wi h barley 610 

oil and cake from seed 611 

preparation of ftbre of 612 

imports of reed of 612 
Flesh as a manure (ifO 
Flour analysis of 170. 

manufacture of 203 

export in I8.n0, 203 
Formation of plants 146. 
Fowl meadow grass 384 
Fungi 132. 197 
Furrows length of for profit 712 

G 

Germination of seeds 133,314 
Gluten of wheat in moist climates 143. 

iis properties 171 
Goitre 69. 
Gooseberry, varieties of, culture 657 

" analysis of 658 

Grains, will they germinate before fully 
ripe 314 
wlieat 143 
rye 204, 227 
barley 228, 251 
oats 252, 272 
Indian corn 273, 314 
rice 31.S 331 
buckwheat 332, 346 
millet 347, 3f:o 
canary grass 351 
Grapes, general remarks on 655 
analysis of leaves of 656 
u.-es of 656 
Grasses, millet 347, 381 
" canary 31' 1 
" importance of 381 
" ditierent species 382 
" mixing 382 
" crop in U. S. 382 
" what species most valuable 383 
" peculiarities of each 384 
" analysis of 385 
" solid matter of rye 385 
" important facts about 385 
" inorganic analysis of rye 387 
" constituents of vary 387 
" " of good hay 388 

" dry analysis of 389 
" sweet-scented vernal 390 
" orchard 390 
" meadow barley 390 
" timothy 390 
" principles and facts in relation to 

391 
" soils for 392 
" effects of upon soils 393 
" manures for .394 
" how to apply manures for 394 



cccxlviii.] 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Grasses seeding with timothy 395 
" steeps for seed of 396 
*' weight of timotiiy seed 397 
" cutting for hay 398 
" mode of curing 399, 401 
" how cut and gathered 400 
" cured in its own juices 401 
" mode of increasing growtli 404 
" irrigating 405 
" assortment of seeds for pasture 
4U6 

Green sand marl, analysis IIS. 

Guano, analysis of 695 

H 

Hair, its composition 684 
Harmon, Genl. 156. 
Hard water 68. 

"' etrects on horses 68. 
Hay, analysis of 389 

'• value of 391 

" old 391, 406 

" when to be cut 393 

" curing 399, 401 

" (iicets of bad on horses 399 

" hAuling 402 

" storing and preserving 403 

" weight of in bulk 406 

" clover, analysis of 410 

" " produce of one acre 410 

" making clover 421 

" carrots compared with 499 
Hemp, species, remarks 613 

" whore grown in U. S. 614 

" analysis of s.>pd of 615, 616 

" " scutcliings of 517 

" superior value of Russian 618 

" value of American 618 

" soil, culture and harvesting 619 

" wild species of 620 

" cost of crop 621 
Herd's Grass, yield of, seed &c 3<^4, 390 
" seed per acre, sown 384 

" faults of 384 

" seed, when sown 395 

Hifchcocit, Dr. quoted 3, 11. 
Hippuric acid in air 11, 32. 
Hogs, experiments in feeding 2S5 

" etTects of buckwheat on 310 

" Parsnii's for 493 

" dung of 693 
Hop, its uses and the produce of 539, 540 

" character of the 541 

" analysis of 542, 543 

" inorganic matter removed from an 
acre by 544 

" varieties of 545 

" soil fur and manures 546 

" culture, gathering and price 547, 51b 

" cost of crop 549 
Horn, its composition 684 
Horse, food and water consumcdand dung 
and urine voided 692 

" dung of analyzed 692 

" qualitlcsof dung of692 

" for plowing 712 



Horsford, Prof. 9, 28. 
Horse chestnut, analysis 66. 



Introduction 1. 

Insects, 110, 351, 202, 312, 313, 367, 451, 

568, 5« J, 595. 
Indian corn, necessary heat for 133 

" its native jilace and species 273 

" where cultivated 274 

" when first cultivated in U. S. 

275 
" quantity produced 275 

" varieties of and charactcrics 

276 
" varieties how distinguished 277 

" desirable qualities of 278 

" weight of 'J79 

'' yield per acre 280 

" analysis of 281 

" '' 5 varieties 281 

" ' ofthe leaves of 283 

" " of the chit S82 

" its feeding qualities 285 

" economical use of '..'85 

" its culinary uses 286 

" s alks &c for fodder 287 

" cobofi88 

•' sugar frcni stalks of 289 

" sown broadcast 29'', 300 

" soil for ^91 

" manures for 29', 702 

" pieparati"n of eround for 293 

" how planted 294 

" No. of lulls and stalks on an 

acre '.94 
'' depth to plant 295 

" proper temperature for seed 

of 295 
" experiment in planting 295 

" quantity of seed required £96 

" cultivation of ^97 

" sowing wheat among 298 

" steeps for 299 

" time to harvest 301 

" topping 3112 

" tai'ing up the leaves for fodder 

303 
" experiment in harvesting 303 

" how harvested 3t 4 

" husking of 304 

" management of stalks when 

siiwn for fodder 305 
" amount per acre in Mass. 305 

" Iiow separated fr<im cob 3C6 

" measuring in crib 306 

*' saving seed, itsimporiance 307 

" feeding in the south 3(18 

" cobs of, how managed 309 

" weeds, none peculiar to 3l0 

" fungus on — smut— its effects 

311 
" diseases of in Maryland 311 

" insects injurious to 312 

" remedies for insects in 313 

Iodine 91. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



[cccxlix. 



Inorganic matter 86. 92. 

'• elements 93. 
Irripition 77. 
Iso-thcrmal lines 125. 
Iso theral " 125. 
Iso-chemical " 125. 



Jerusalem artichoke 470 

'' analysis of 471. 473 

*' u-^es ami value of 474 

*' soil and climate for 475 

•« culture 470 

" cutting & curing stallis 

477 
" gathering the tubers 478 

" pre-erviiijr " 479 

" advantages of growing 

48J 

K 

Kohl Rabi 4J4 
K.eutui.ky Blue Grass 884 

L 
Leaves, action of 46, 47. 
Leguminous plants H52 

their (culture in the U. S. 354 
L ntils 352, 355, 370 

" soil for 377 
Lottuce COi 
Liebig 2S. 
Light VM. 
Lime 80, 83. 
" in Iciiched ashes 702 
" v.ilueof, how ai>plipd 703 
" specimens and analysis of 7^3 
" effects of burned on soils 703 
" quiuitiry to lie applied 703 
Linseed analysis of 0U5 

oilof and cake 611,612 
" imports of 612 
Liquorice, general remarks ."^87 
" siiil for culture 18-i 

'' planting and culture 51^9 

" harvesting and yield ^90 

Lucevne 424 
Lupines ^80 

M 
Marl, varieMes of 705 

" analysis of 1 17, 119, 120, 705 

" formation of, Michipan, 705 

" etii'cts of on soils 705 

Manures, nitrogenous 1 '. 

" effects on wheat 177 

■" how to use judicriously 178 

" elovei , plaster and slierp dung— 

tie plnloso])hy of their action 

i;9 

*' for Indian corn £92 

" for rice 3£0 

" buckwheat plowed under 342 

"" for the grasses 39', tUO 

" for clovers 41 >* 

" lor parsnips 497 



Manures for beets 528 

' for bops .''40 

" for the onion ^53 

" for tobacco 573 

" from oil beans 5S6 

" for flax 6C6-7 

" for apple 034 

" for pear 642 

" for quince 645 

" for pi'ach 047 

" for cherry 052 

" for gooseberry 657 

" rhubarb 6 9 

" general remarks on 668 

" classification of 073 

" of animal origin 074 

" mineral 675 

" interesting experiment with 676 
077 

" classical value of 078, 679 

" effects of 07 9 

" animal, flesh 080 

" *' huir. horn, wool, bones, 

684, Os.'i OSe 

" fish as 088 

" mineral phosphates 0*^7 

" barn-yardj composition 690, 691 

" cow dung 091 

' ' hot-se dung 092 

'' dung of sheep ai\d hogs 093 

" dung of bi'ds 094 

" night soil 696 

" urine 097 

" consituents of good barn-yard 
659 

" analysis of barn-yard 099 

" composts 7 

'' mineral . wood ashes 70 i, 702 

" vegetable, classes of 7i8 

" value of 7l8 

«' peat 70H 

" list of articles used for 708 
Manuring the foil 069, 07o. 071,572 
Ml chanical texture of Eoil 102. 
Meteorology 12i, 122. 

" benefit of 145. 

Mean temperature 129. 
Meadows, laying down permanent 395 

" irri:;ating -(05 

" reiiovatinff old 405 
Mildew on wheat 2C0 
.Milk affected 1 y water 68 
Minenil jihosphates, analysis of 687 
Mineral waters 64. 
iMississippi river 71. 
Millet, f^eiiera and character &c 347 
" Indian 347 

" its qualities and constituents 348 
" soil for 3)9 
" quantity of seed 349 
" time of sowing 349 
" harvesting and yield per acre 34S^ 
" its uses 3: 
Moisture, effect on wheat 144. 
MoDii'sac ion on plai'ts U5. 
Muck, composi icu of 7u7 



cccl.] 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Muriatic ncid in air 12, 37. 
Mustard, wild 27 1 

" wliito 431 

" manufacture of 538 
MusU melon aual^vsis of t6l, 666 

N 
Nectarine 651 
New Orle.ins. rain at 138. 
Nitrogen in hay 3!^8, 389 
" in oats 3s9 
" in clover roots 4 !0 
" in dry beet fi20 
" in dun? of slieep and hogs 693 
Nicotine in tobacco 572 
Night soil 6116 

O 
Oats, soils for 173, 284 
" native place 252 
" where cultivated 253 
" produce in U. S. 2'A 
" species cultivated 255 
" quantity raised per acre 256 
" analysis of grain 2.57, . 58 
•' " of straw 2.59 
" " of 4 varieties 260 
" nitrogen and protein compounds ii 

211 
" ertl'cts of manures ou the 362 
" USPS of 263 
" effects of on soils 264 
" what 5 crop takes from an acre of 

soil i;65 
*' lidw much sown and when 263 
*' when to harvest 267 
" straw of for fodder 268 
" insects in 269 
" smut in 270 
" weeds in 271 
«' salt for 272 
" peas with 369 
" compared \n ith carrots 509 
Oil of seeds, its ui-e 458 

" plants vieldiiig 591 
Organic matter in wheat 174 

" in corn 282 

Orchard grass 390 
Organic ma'ter 86, 87, 88 to 91. 
Onion, ditierent species 550 
" its native country 551 
" field culture and produce 551 
" composition of 552 
" soil for and culture 553 
" manures for 553 
•' selecting for seed 554 
" J iel<l per acre 555 
" culiure of in Russia 556 
" maggot in, remedies 55? 
" free trom insects 558 
Oxygen in soils 109. 
Ozier willow, species, imports &c 627 

" species and varieties useful 638 

" soils for 629 

«< cultivation and preparation for 

use 6liO 
« cultare of in Mississippi 631 



Ozier willow, yield) swamp Inntis for 63* 
Dzone 11, 33. 

P 
Parsnip .^81 

" species and variel ics 482 

" nutritive qualities and uses of 433 

•' analysis of 485 (o 4>-7 

■' is a potash plant 487 

" soil and manure for 486 

" culture &c 489 

" yield per acre 191 

'• harvesting -190 

" feeding leaves of to cows 492 

" how fed to animals 493 

" wine fiom 491 

" obtaining seed of 495 

" insects and disease 496 

" manures for i97 

" compared with carrots .504 
Pasture, assortment of seeds fi)r 4ll6 
Peas, varieties of 352, .'{53 

" analysis of and straw 356, 357, 358 

" value of straw 358 

" nutritive mat;cr cf an acre 359 

" sugar in 360 

" varieties giown 361 

" soil for 362 

" culti\ation 3(53 

" harvesting 3: 4 

" grown among corn 365 

" how grown in Southern States 3C6 

" pea-bog ill 367 

" how to esi ape the insect 367 

" yield per acre 36S 

" their u-es 369 

" oats with, etlectson land 369 
Peach, comparii-on of wiih apple 610 

" varieties *' c manures for 647 

" analysis of leaves of 64S 

" yellows in, other disc ases 643 

" analysis of tree 649 

" qualities of kernel &c 650 
Pear, compa' i on ot with apple 639 

" sp ctes and varieties 642 

" analysis of wood and leaves of 643,644 
Peat, 708 

" aiKilysis of 708 

" pni|ieilies of 708 

" charring and nixing with dung 708 

" mixing with ashes 708 
Pectin 413,510 

Perennial plants, limits of 129. 
Phosphoiic acid in water 65. 
Pigiun wee<! 193 
Pine apple 21. 
Plants, formation of 14, 15, 16, 146 668 

" a, an apparatus of reduction 672 

" growth of 17, 18. 

" cultivation of 20. 22. 

'' composition of lOil 668 

" perennial, and annual 129. 

" physiology of 147. 

" stems of 148. 
Plaster, composition and qualities 701 

" its action on soils 7<i4 

" mixed with common salt 704 



GENERAL INDEX. 



[cccli* 



Pluviometer 135. 
Plows improvements in VIO 
Plowmg objects of 7ii9, 711 
" hnrses for plowing 712 
" len^'th and broadth of furrow 712 
" advi\ntn(;es of proper shaped fieldi 

for 712 
'* time lust in 712 
" variety of modes of 713 
Plum, varieties, curculio 051 
Population of the U. S. 152. 
Potato 158 
" present value as a field crop 4C9 
" when introduced too 
" propagation 4ijl 
" qualitiis of the root 402 
" analysis of :'G'! to 405 
" nutritive qualiies of 4(JC 
" yield per acre 400 
" rot in 407 

" cultivation and harvesting 4C8 
" starch, arrow-root, British "um and 
other constituents contained in 409 
" comparison of with apple 039 
Fumpkhi the. its relatives .5.59 

'• little known regarding It 5G0 
" its vi.lue 500 
" grown with corn 563 
" yield 504 

" preserving in winter 565 
" its uses 507 

" insects on young plants,rcmedies 
508 
Pyrrhin 36 and note. 

Q 
Quince varieties 046 
" seeds of 6S6 
" manures 645 



R 



Rain, ammonia in 29. note. 

" conipo^itiim of 29. 

" eff cts of 53. 

" purity of 54. 

" necessity of 135. 
Rain-guipe 1:^5. 
Rain, mode of measuring 135. 

" period of 130. 

" annual amount of 130. 

" in England and tlie U States 136, 

" weif^ht of 137. 

" 8easf)n of 1.18. 

" mode of falling 139. 

" descent in soil 110. 

*' aborplion of Itl. 

" evaporation of 142. 
Hope, seed of 453 

" species of 456 

" oil from, cid ure, manure for, weight 
of, value of cake &e 456 

" culture in Pa., time of sowing 456 

" analy is of 457, 458 

" oil in cake 458 
Rays dirtVrent of light 134. 
Reautuur's thermometer 129. 



Rhubarb, species and varieties 659 
Ripening of craiiis 131. 
River water 71. 
Kice, general remarks 315 
varieties 

where it grows and is cultivated 317, 
318,319 

wild, a (lifiFerent family 320 
unhUsUed 321 
analysis of 322. 32.3, 324 
fatty matter of .'123 
best soils for, and culture 325 
cleaning &c 326 
time and mode of sowing the upland 

327 
yield of per acre 328 
how measured 329 
i^s uses 330 

soil in which it grows 331 
To -ks 76. 
Koots, genera 432 

" profit of growing 432 
Rust on wheat 199 

" culture and soil 059 
" analysis of 060, 002 
Rye grass, (Italian) 384, 391 
Rye, soils for 173 
" its importance and native place 204 
" where cultivated 205 
" produce of in V. S. 2n6 
" species and varieties 207 
" analysis of 20s, 2(iy, 210 
" varies in composition 211 
" straw iinalvsis of 212 
" flour of 213 
" bread oi 214 
" soils for 215 
" inorganic constiluents 216 
" sowing and time of 217,218 
•' culture and harvisting 219 
" sown with wheat 221 
" sown for fodder 222 
" to plow under 223 
'' ergot in 225 
" straw of 227 
" depth to he covered 227 
'• what it takes from the soil 676 



Salt in beets 520 
" in blood 682 
" in composition 706 
" its value 706 
Sciences in AL'ricultuie 5,6. 
Schools in Europe 10, 11. 
Sheep, health of I39. 

■' dung of 693 
Silica 80, 83. 
Smut on wheat 198 
Soil, nature of 72, 73. 
" formation of 74. 
" position iif 75. 
" composition of 79, 80, 82. 
•' classification of 84. 
" use of «5. 
j " inorgauic elements of 93. 



ccclii.] 



GENERAL INDEX. 



Sbtl fet^ile 97. 

" rich and poor disinteg;rated 98. 
" mechanical texiure of 102. 
" depth of 103.* 
" color of H/4. 
" moisture in 107. 
" absorbing power of 107. 
" retention of net in 108. 
" oxygen in 109. 
" capillary power of 111. 
" power to absorb wet 141. 
Soils clasificrtion of 173 
" wh.1t wheat takes fron 17* 
" best for rice 325 
" " buckwheat 313 

" '< millet 349 

•• " the pea 362 

" " beans 371 

" " lentils 377 

" " grasses 392 

" " turnips 435 

" " artichoke 47S 

" " parsnijis 4S8 

" " beets 522 

" " hops 546 

" " onions 553 

" " tobacco 574 

" " liquorice 5»S 

" " flax 607 

" " broom corn 623 

" " hemp 619 

" analysis of turnip 435 
" constittients of <)()9 
" what Crops take aivay from 669 
•' at tion of the elements upon 669 
" proper manai^ement of 669 
" manuring the HG9t 670, 671, 672 
St.atistics of wheat 152. 
Spindle worm 312 
Spring wheat 155. 
Sporules in air 35. 
Bpriufj water 6t. 
Subsoil, nature of 103. 
Sulphuric acid in springs 70. 
Su^ar beets, large routs conlfein less sugar 
458 
" sugar from 512 
Super phosphate of lime 68(5 
Sweet potato, order, family 532 

" Avhere I'hay be grown 533 

" analysis of 534 

" soil and culture 535, 536 

" preserving thro' winter 337 



Tare the (or Vetch) 378 

" when Sown, soils for &c 379 
I'easel, species 592 

" when introduced iu XJ. S., price, 
&c. 593 

" culture, &c. 594 

'• insects injurious to ."^93 

" use bf superseded 596 

" to procure seed of 697 
'i'hermometer 129,144. 



Temperature of pittntsj 130. 

" effects of on vegetatloU 131 ; 

" efti'Cts of on seeds 133. 

" of soil 132. 

Tobacco, species, remarks 569 

" cultivation and produce 570 

" analysis of 571, 572 

" nicotine in 572 

" composition and qualities 572 

" manure fbr 573 

" ingredients talven away by 100 
lbs. 573 

" soil for 574 

" mt>de of culture and cUring 579 

" " practiced south 576 

" hogsheads for packing in 577 

" yield ner .acre 578 

" cost of crop 579 

" disease of 580 

" insects troublesome 581 

" saving seed ^ii'2 
Tomato analysis of Cfj3 
Tree, analj'sis of sweet apple 640 

'• leaves of Early Harvest 6ll 
Turi'ip, species 433 

" common 434 

" soil for, analysis of 434 

" ellocts of climate on 436 

" analysis of 437 to 442 

" white globe, analysis of 438, 439 

" Constitllents vary 439 

" Swedes, organic analVsis of 440 
458 

" comparative analysis of varieties 
440 

" what a crop draws from soil 442 

" pectin in 443 

" desirable qualities of 444, 458 

" yield in Great Britain 445 

" " in N. Y. and I'a: 445 

" cost of crop 446 

" culture. Soil, seed, mantorcs, &C) 
447 

" time of Bowing, jlnd harvestingf 
448 

" fattening cattle on 449 

" diseases 450 

" insects injurious to B41 

" how to raise seed from 452 

'■ quality of the seeds of 453 

" advantages of their culture 499 

" what they take from so 1 676 

U 

Urine, its value 697 

" composition 697 
Urea composition 697 
ferUieutation of 697 

V 

Vegetable oyster, analysis of 66f 
Vetch 196 

Veterinary schools 4, 12 
Viuegar from beets 531 



GENERAL INDEX. 



[cccliii 



Watermelon analysis of 666 
Water in air 38. 67. 

" composition of 44. 

" chemical action of 45. 

" eftect of 46. 

" use of 47, 48. 

" sources of 50. 

** wciglit of 51. 

" inorganic matter in 65. 

" sea, analysis of '56. 

« Schuylkill " 57. 

" Dead sea " 58. 

" Salt Lake " 59,60. 

" Grenable " 61. 

•' Hartford « 62. 

" salts in 63. 

" phosphoric acid in 65. 

" in animals and plants 66. 

" in Horse chestnul 66. 

" injurious to plants 63. 

" River 71. 

" in soils 107, 103. 
Weeds, 110. 
■Weight of rain 137 
Wheat affected by moisture 143, 168, 

" value of 143. 

" damaged by wet 144. 

" botanical position of 152. 

" polar limits of 152. 

" introduction in the U. S. 152. 

" statistics of 152. 

" ditTerent species of 1 53. 

" Spring and winter 154. 

" qualities desirable in 157. 

" weight of 158. 

" analysis of 159, !62, 166, 167. 

" time of cutting 164. 



Wheat flour 170. 

" bran 165. 

" the best oils for 173 

" analysis of soils for 173 

" what it requires and takes from the 
soil 174 

*■ organic matter in 174 

" why it runs to straw 175 

" manures for 176 

" effects of manures on 177 

" clover turned under for 179 

" modes of preparing land for 180 

" modes of covering 181 

" how sown 182 

" how harvested 183 

" how preserved 184 

" how thrashed 185 

" storing 166 

" when to cut 188 

" for seed 189 

" quantity of seed per acre 190 

" waste of seed 191 

" depth to be covered 192 

" old for seed 193 

" steeps for 194 

" how to judge of good seed 195 

" weeds that injure 19S 

" parasitic fungi on 197 

" smut on 198 

" rust on 199 

" mildew on 200 

" insects injurious to 291 

" " " to seed 202 

" made into flour 203 

" cost of producing 203 

" gown among corn 298 
Weevil in wheat 202, 312 
Wire worm 312 
Wool, its composition 684 



ERRATA. 

Page 62— Reverse the headings of the Table — •' Water in the Flour per 
cent," and " Flour in the Grain per cent." 

" 161, line 10 from top, for " Guined" read Guinea. 

" 166, " 5 from bottom after " Randal Giass" {"Festuca Praiem.' 
sis and Elatior") 

" 181 " 4 from top for " tree" read ires, 

" 187 " 2 flora bottom for "tliem" read their. 

'• 206 " 13 from top for" soil" read 0(7. 

" 250. While the Inst sheet was going through the Press, the third 
number of Prof Johnston's Chemistry of Common life was received, in 
which it is stated " that the onion is remaiJcably nutritious. According 
to my Analyses, the dried onion root contains from 25 to 30 per cent, 
of gluten. It ranks in this respect with the nutritious pea, and the 
6ra7n (or Chick Pea) of the Ei\st."-Sce $ 353, p. 148. 



iu ;7:o, 



